How are mountains indicated on a geographical map? Conventions for topographic surveys

10.08.2017

All surveyors know that during the construction of a topographic survey, symbols are needed on the topographic survey of utilities and objects.

All components of the terrain situation, existing buildings, utilities, and certain relief forms are displayed on a topographic survey and on a geological basis using special symbols. In accordance with GOST, they are divided into 4 main types:

Linear means power lines, routes, product pipelines (oil, gas), telecommunication lines, and so on). Their width is out of scale.

Explanatory captions further identify the objects that are depicted.

So, at a river, the speed of the flow is indicated, as well as its direction; at a bridge, its length, width and load capacity are indicated, and for highways, the surface features and width of the roadway are indicated, and so on.

Area signs (they are also called contour signs) display those objects that can be depicted according to the scale of the map - they occupy a specific area. Such signs are outlined with a solid thin line, intermittently or as a dotted line. The created contour is filled with symbols (vegetation in the meadow, trees, vegetable garden, garden, bushes, and so on).

Off-scale signs depict those objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale. In this case, the location of such an out-of-scale object is determined by its specific point. In particular, radio centers, television towers, factory chimneys.

Topoplans differ in their own scales by 1: 500, 1: 1000, 1: 2000 and 1: 5000. Based on the parameters of the object on the ground, an extensive range of designations is used, regulated Russian government– it must be complied with by all departments and organizations.

On topographic surveys, depicted objects are usually divided into 8 main segments (groups):

mathematical basis;

• hydrography;

  vegetation and soils;

  manufacturing enterprises;

  road network;

  signatures and borders;

  settlements.

Collections, which indicate the designation on topographic surveys of different scales, are created in accordance with a similar division into objects. They are approved by the relevant government departments and are considered uniform for each topographic plan; they must be drawn on any topographic surveys and geodetic maps.

It is important to take into account that symbols may differ on plans of different scales, therefore, in order to correctly read a topographic plan, it is necessary to use symbols for a specific scale.

Various symbols on a topographic survey come to the aid of “reading” the area and new projects are created based on this information. It differs from simple geographical maps in that it is more universal: objective relief specifics are indicated here (topographic maps), herbal composition (natural maps), production facilities, engineering lines and locations of stations. Legend Topographical surveys of the microdistrict are partially similar to the general plan of the city.

Letter symbols on topographic surveys often give schematic representations a different meaning. In particular, a simple rectangle will depict simply non-scale residential buildings - only in a set with explanations in the form of letters does the map receive new meaning. Thus, the image on a topographical survey of a TP inside the specified rectangle will mean that the building acts as a transformer electrical substation.

Designation of some symbols

Experts identify the following symbols, which can most often be seen on topographic surveys:

1 - places of concentration and places of the state geodetic network

2 - limits of land use, as well as allotments along with boundary signs at the points where they turn.

3 - buildings. Using numbers, experts indicate the number of storeys of a building. Explanatory captions indicate the fire resistance of the building

g - non-fire-resistant residential (built from wood);

n - non-residential non-fire resistant;

Kn - non-residential, made of stone;

Kzh - residential, as a rule, built of brick;

smn and smzh - mixed non-residential and mixed residential - wooden buildings with thin brick cladding or with floors that are built from various building materials (for example, the 1st floor can be built from brick, the 2nd - from wood).

The designation of buildings on a topographic survey that are just being erected is carried out using a dotted line.

4 - slopes are used to display ravines, road embankments and other natural and artificial relief forms where the heights change sharply.

5 - poles of communication lines and power lines. Such designations reproduce the pillar configuration of the section. Made in the shape of a square or circle. Pole signs that are made of reinforced concrete have a dot in the center. When one arrow is pointed in the direction of electrical wires, then this is a low-voltage pole, two - a high-voltage pole (6 kV or more)

6 - symbols of utility networks on a topographic survey are carried out in relation to communications that are located both underground and above it. Symbols on topographic surveys of utilities located underground are made using a dotted line, and above the ground - a solid line. Letters indicate types of communications. K is a sewerage system, the designation KL on the topographic survey is a storm sewer, G is the designation of a gas pipeline on a topographic survey, N is an oil pipeline, T is a thermal route, V is a water supply system. At the same time, certain explanations are additionally established. So, if a cable is designated on a topographic survey, then the number of wires, the pressure present in the gas pipeline, the material from which the pipes are made, their thickness, and so on are indicated.

The design of power supply and communication cables is carried out as follows:

7 - traditionally denotes cable

8 - network that is being designed

9 - working line

Most citizens do not encounter topographic surveys. As a rule, reading, deciphering and drawing up such maps is the responsibility of builders and cartographers, with the most in demand being engineering lines. Conventionally designating engineering communications on a topographic survey is an indispensable condition for their objectivity.

It is necessary to indicate conventionally on a topographical survey of utility networks linear method- dashed or solid straight lines:

the designation of all operating pipelines and networks located above the ground is carried out using a straight solid line with a thickness of 0.3 millimeters;

the designation of all design, partially faulty or non-functional communications located above the ground is carried out by a dotted line with a thickness of 0.2 millimeters;

the designation of all communications located underground is done with a dotted line.

As a rule, all signs are applied in black. However, for greater clarity, it is possible to render lines in a different color. Generally established designations are:

water supply - green;

sewers - brown in color;

gas pipeline - in blue color;

heating networks - in blue.

Often in practice, there are discrepancies between how to designate on a topographic survey and a general plan - the colors of utility networks can be depicted by lines of different colors. In particular, a communication cable on a topographical survey, according to the rules of cartography, is indicated in black, but in master plans it can be depicted in yellow, red or other convenient color. visual perception color.

In general, topographic surveys require special skills in order to be compiled and interpreted. But the unification of symbols makes it easier to work with maps.

On topoplans, the contours of buildings must be depicted according to their original outlines in nature (in the form of a rectangle, oval, etc.). This is the main requirement for all buildings that are expressed to scale, and if possible for those that can be represented exclusively by non-scale signs.

It is necessary to display with utmost detail buildings that overlook the red line of blocks, high-rise buildings and buildings considered places of interest.

The presence of towers or towers at the top of the structure, which serve as a landmark, should be depicted on the topoplan by drawing their symbols into the image of the building at a certain place (signs No. 24, 25), and if the objects are of sufficient size, then the contours need to be highlighted using explanatory notes.

Prominent buildings should be displayed on topographic plans along with inscriptions of the eminent type. 60 (where the number indicates the height of the building, which is inscribed when the height of the building is fifty meters or more). This is necessary in order to ensure further mapping on a smaller scale.

The number of storeys of buildings is displayed on topographic plans of all scales with a specific number, starting from 2 floors. When calculating the number of floors, there is no need to take into account small attics on the roofs of high-rise buildings and semi-basements, regardless of the nature of their use.

Buildings with columns instead of the entire 1st floor or its
parts (and at the same time those that start directly from the ground) must be highlighted on topoplans of scale sizes 1: 2000 - 1: 500. If this is graphically possible, then each column is depicted; if selection is necessary, those located along the edges in their own place, and others - after three to four millimeters. On topoplans of scale 1:5000, buildings with columns are shown as ordinary ones.

The symbol for buildings under construction is used when their foundations have been laid and walls are being erected. When a building is built up to the roof, its outline is depicted as a solid line, rather than a dashed line, and is accompanied on topoplans of scales 1: 2000 - 1:500 with indicators of the purpose, fire resistance and number of storeys of the building. The explanatory note on the page is retained at this stage. Construction is considered completed only after the building is put into operation.

When depicting buildings that are close together, all residential buildings are demarcated using contour lines. It is necessary to graphically distinguish between residential buildings and non-residential buildings that are adjacent to them, and at the same time fire-resistant buildings from non-fire-resistant ones.

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Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are freely circulating on the Internet. We all love to download them, look at them, and often print them on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased cards printed in modern times, will not carry as much accuracy and specificity. The symbols and symbols on the topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other symbols on maps purchased in the store. We all remember them from geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, I would like to describe at the beginning of this article the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less understandable, since they are almost all identical to other types of cards (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

Speed ​​and direction of river flow (0.6 m/s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Soil type ( TO - rocky, P - sand, T - solid, IN - viscous)
Water line mark, shore height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky soil, 1,0 - speed (m/sec)
The swamp is passable
The swamp is impassable
Bridge characteristics: D- construction material ( D - wood, TO - stone, reinforced concrete - reinforced concrete), 43 - bridge length, 4 - width of the roadway (m), 10 - lifting capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
Winter road, a functioning road only in the winter season, during the cold period. Can go through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the roadway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring made of logs, 3 - width of the roadway
Go away
Railway track
Gas pipeline
Power lines (PTL)
Dismantled railway
Single track railway, narrow gauge. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 —width of the covered part, 8 — the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - crushed stone, Shl - slag, SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep river banks, rocky outcrops, Parma
Relief contours with relative height designation (260 m)
Mountainous terrain without vegetation cover, covered with kurum stones and rock outcrops
Mountainous area with vegetation cover and sparse trees, the forest border is visible
Outlier rocks with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and rocky cliffs
Elevation mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. Near the edge of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photos of some geographical objects

The main winter road laid through the taiga forest. In summer there are thickets here (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdel district, Northern Urals)

Gat - road with wooden covering (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, Parma (Stone "Giant", Middle Urals)

Remnant rocks (Old Stone rock, Middle Urals)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can date back to the 70-80s of the last century. If you are interested in the details of walking along certain trails, roads, the presence of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check in advance the reliability of the information from other sources. There may no longer be any paths or roads at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and look like wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still provide more accurate information, and using them you can more productively calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not bother your heads with unnecessary symbols and symbols of topographic maps. I have posted only the most important and significant for the mountain-taiga and steppe region. Those interested in details can take a look.

Maps of the General Staff of the USSR were made using the Soviet system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in Russian Federation and in some former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by geodetic reconnaissance of the pre-war period. “The maps are compiled in a conformal transverse cylindrical Gauss-Kruger projection, calculated using the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for a six-degree zone,” - and if you don’t understand, it doesn’t matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) the points that I cited above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using GPS.

Scale, or contour, conditional topographic signs are used to depict local objects whose size can be expressed on a map scale, that is, their dimensions (length, width, area) can be measured on the map. For example: lake, meadow, large gardens, residential areas. The contours (external boundaries) of such local objects are depicted on the map with solid lines or dotted lines, forming figures similar to these local objects, but only in a reduced form, that is, on the scale of the map. Solid lines show the contours of neighborhoods, lakes, and wide rivers, and the contours of forests, meadows, and swamps are dotted lines.

Figure 31.

Constructions and buildings expressed on the scale of the map are depicted with figures similar to their actual outlines on the ground and are painted over in black. Figure 31 shows several on-scale (a) and out-of-scale (b) symbols.

Off-scale symbols

Explanatory topographic signs serve for additional characteristics local items and are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale signs. For example, a figurine of a coniferous or deciduous tree inside the outline of a forest shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, etc.

In addition to signs, maps use full and abbreviated signatures, as well as digital characteristics of some objects. For example, the signature “mash.” with a plant sign means that this plant is a machine-building plant. The names of settlements, rivers, mountains, etc. are fully signed.

Digital symbols are used to indicate the number of houses in rural settlements, the height of the terrain above sea level, the width of the road, the characteristics of the load capacity and the size of the bridge, as well as the size of trees in the forest, etc. Digital symbols related to conventional relief signs are printed brown, the width and depth of rivers are in blue, everything else is in black.

Let us briefly consider the main types of topographic symbols for depicting the area on the map.

Let's start with the relief. Due to the fact that observation conditions largely depend on its nature, the terrain's passability and its protective properties, the terrain and its elements are depicted on all topographic maps in great detail. Otherwise, we could not use the map to study and evaluate the area.

In order to clearly and completely imagine the area on the map, you must first of all be able to quickly and correctly determine on the map:

Types of unevenness of the earth's surface and their relative location;

Mutual elevation and absolute heights of any terrain points;

The shape, steepness and length of the slopes.

On modern topographic maps, the relief is depicted by horizontal lines, that is, curved closed lines, the points of which are located on the ground at the same height above sea level. To better understand the essence of depicting relief with horizontal lines, let’s imagine an island in the form of a mountain, gradually flooded with water. Let us assume that the water level sequentially stops at equal intervals, equal in height to h meters (Fig. 32).

Then each water level will have its own coastline in the form of a closed curved line, all points of which have the same height. These lines can also be considered as traces of the cross-section of uneven terrain by planes parallel to the level surface of the sea, from which heights are calculated. Based on this, the height distance h between the secant surfaces is called the section height.

Figure 32.

So, if all lines of equal heights are projected onto the level surface of the sea and depicted to scale, then we will receive an image of the mountain on the map in the form of a system of curved closed lines. These will be the horizontal lines.

In order to find out whether it is a mountain or a basin, there are slope indicators - small lines that are drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines in the direction of the descent of the slope.

Figure 33.

The main (typical) landforms are presented in Figure 32.

The height of the section depends on the scale of the map and the nature of the relief. The normal height of the section is considered to be a height equal to 0.02 of the map scale, that is, 5 m for a map of scale 1:25,000 and, accordingly, 10, 20 m for maps of scales 1: 50,000, 1: 100,000. Contour lines on the map corresponding to those established for below the height of the section, are drawn in solid lines and are called main or solid horizontal lines. But it happens that at a given section height, important details of the relief are not expressed on the map, since they are located between the cutting planes.

Then half semi-horizontal lines are used, which are drawn through half the main height of the section and are plotted on the map with broken lines. To determine the count of contours when determining the height of points on the map, all solid contours corresponding to five times the height of the section are drawn thickly (thickened contours). So, for a map of scale 1: 25,000, each horizontal line corresponding to the section height of 25, 50, 75, 100 m, etc. will be drawn as a thick line on the map. The main section height is always indicated below the south side of the map frame.

The altitudes of the terrain depicted on our maps are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. The heights of points on the earth's surface above sea level are called absolute, and the elevation of one point over another is called relative elevation. Contour marks - digital inscriptions on them - indicate the height of these terrain points above sea level. The top of these numbers always faces the upward slope.

Figure 34.

Marks of command heights, from which the terrain from the most important objects on the map (large settlements, road junctions, passes, mountain passes, etc.) is better visible than from others, are marked in large numbers.

Using contour lines you can determine the steepness of slopes. If you look closely at Figure 33, you can see from it that the distance between two adjacent contour lines on the map, called the lay (at a constant section height), changes depending on the steepness of the slope. The steeper the slope, the smaller the overlay and, conversely, the lower the slope, the greater the overlay. The conclusion follows from this: steep slopes on the map will differ in the density (frequency) of contours, and in flat places the contours will be less frequent.

Usually, to determine the steepness of the slopes, a drawing is placed in the margins of the map - depth scale(Fig. 35). Along the lower base of this scale are numbers that indicate the steepness of the slopes in degrees. The corresponding values ​​of the deposits on the map scale are plotted on perpendiculars to the base. On the left side, the depth scale is built for the main section height, on the right - at five times the section height. To determine the steepness of the slope, for example, between points a-b(Fig. 35), you need to take this distance with a compass and put it on the position scale and read the steepness of the slope - 3.5°. If you need to determine the steepness of the slope between the horizontal thickened p-t, then this distance must be plotted on the right scale and the slope of the slope in this case will be equal to 10°.

Figure 35.

Knowing the properties of contour lines, you can determine the shape from the map various types stingrays (Fig. 34). For an even slope, the depths will be approximately the same throughout its entire length; for a concave slope, they increase from the top to the bottom; and for a convex slope, on the contrary, the formations decrease towards the bottom. In wavy slopes, the positions change according to the alternation of the first three forms.

When depicting relief on maps, not all of its elements can be expressed as contours. So, for example, slopes with a steepness of more than 40° cannot be expressed as horizontals, since the distance between them will be so small that they will all merge. Therefore, slopes that have a steepness of more than 40° and are steep are indicated by horizontal lines with dashes (Fig. 36). Moreover, natural cliffs, ravines, gullies are indicated in brown, and artificial embankments, recesses, mounds and pits are indicated in black.

Figure 36.

Let's consider the basic conventional topographical signs for local objects. Settlements are depicted on the map while maintaining external boundaries and layout (Fig. 37). All streets, squares, gardens, rivers and canals, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and structures of landmark significance are shown. For better clarity, fire-resistant buildings (stone, concrete, brick) are painted over orange, and blocks with non-fire-resistant buildings - yellow. The names of settlements on maps are written strictly from west to east. The type of administrative significance of a settlement is determined by the type and size of the font (Fig. 37). Under the signature of the name of the village you can find a number indicating the number of houses in it, and if there is a district or village council in the settlement, the letters “RS” and “SS” are additionally placed.

Figure 37 - 1.

Figure 37 - 2.

No matter how poor the area is in local objects or, on the contrary, saturated, there are always individual objects on it that, by their size, stand out from the rest and are easily identified on the ground. Many of them can be used as guides. This should include: factory chimneys and prominent buildings, tower-type buildings, wind turbines, monuments, gas pumps, signs, kilometer posts, separately standing trees etc. (Fig. 37). Most of them, due to their size, cannot be shown on the scale of the map, so they are depicted on it as out-of-scale signs.

The road network and crossings (Fig. 38, 1) are also depicted with out-of-scale symbols. Data on the width of the roadway, road surface, indicated on the conventional signs, make it possible to evaluate their throughput, load capacity, etc. Depending on the number of tracks, railways are indicated by dashes across the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two dashes - double-track railway . On railways stations, embankments, excavations, bridges and other structures are shown. For bridges longer than 10 m, its characteristics are signed.

Figure 38 - 1.

Figure 38 - 2.

Figure 39.

For example, the signature on the bridge ~ means that the length of the bridge is 25 m, the width is 6 m, and the load capacity is 5 tons.

Hydrography and structures associated with it (Fig. 38, 2), depending on the scale, are shown in greater or less detail. The width and depth of the river is written as a fraction 120/4.8, which means:

The river is 120 m wide and 4.8 m deep. The speed of the river flow is shown in the middle of the symbol with an arrow and a number (the number indicates the speed of 0.1 meters per second, and the arrow indicates the direction of the flow). On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low water (water line mark) in relation to sea level is also indicated. For fords it is signed: in the numerator - the depth of the ford in meters, and in the denominator - the quality of the soil (T - hard, P - sandy, V - viscous, K - rocky). For example, br. 1.2/k means that the ford is 1.2 m deep and the bottom is rocky.

Soil and vegetation cover (Fig. 39) is usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps, salt marshes, as well as sand, rocky surfaces, and pebbles. Its characteristics are indicated in the forests. For example, for a mixed forest (spruce with birch) the numbers are 20/\0.25 - this means that the average height of the trees in the forest is 20 m, their average thickness is 0.25 m, and the average distance between tree trunks is 5 meters.

Figure 40.

Swamps are depicted depending on their passability on the map: passable, difficult to pass, impassable (Fig. 40). Passable swamps have a depth (to solid ground) of no more than 0.3-0.4 m, which is not shown on maps. The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. On the maps, the corresponding symbols show the cover of the swamps (grass, moss, reed), as well as the presence of forests and shrubs on them.

Lumpy sands differ from smooth sands and are indicated on the map with a special symbol. In the southern steppe and semi-steppe regions there are areas with soil richly saturated with salt, which are called salt marshes. They are wet and dry, some are impassable and others are passable. On maps they are indicated by conventional symbols - “shading” of blue color. An image of salt marshes, sands, swamps, soil and vegetation cover is shown in Figure 40.

Off-scale symbols of local objects

Answer: Off-scale symbols are used to depict small local objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale - free-standing trees, houses, wells, monuments, etc. When depicting them on a map scale, they would appear in the form of a point. Examples of depicting local objects with out-of-scale symbols are shown in Figure 31. The exact location of these objects, depicted with out-of-scale symbols (b), is determined by the center of the symmetrical figure (7, 8, 9, 14, 15), in the middle of the base of the figure (10, 11) , at the top of the corner of the figure (12, 13). Such a point on the figure of an off-scale symbol is called the main point. In this figure, the arrow shows the main points of symbols on the map.

It is useful to remember this information in order to correctly measure the distance between local objects on the map.

(This question is discussed in detail in question No. 23)

Explanatory and conventional signs of local objects

Answer: Types of topographical symbols

The terrain on maps and plans is depicted by topographical symbols. All conventional signs of local objects, according to their properties and purpose, can be divided into the following three groups: contour, scale, explanatory.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

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Books

• , . Conventional signs for topographic plans. Scales 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000 and 1: 500 Reproduced in the original author’s spelling of the 1973 edition (Nedra publishing house).…
• Symbols for topographic plans, Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography under Sova. Shown are symbols of geodetic points, buildings, buildings and their parts, railways and structures attached to them, roads and dirt roads, hydrography, bridges, overpasses and...