Southern group of Slavic languages. Slavic languages
Plan:
- Introduction
- 1 Classification
- 2 Origin
- 3 History of development
- 4 Phonetics
- 5 Writing
- 6 Literary languages Literature
Notes
Introduction
Slavic languages- a group of related languages Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Total number more than 400 million speakers. They are distinguished by a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, use grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, system of regular sound correspondences, morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intensive contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.
The long-term independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences of a material, functional and typological nature.
1. Classification
Slavic languages, according to the degree of their proximity to each other, are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialectal division and stylistic structure within each Slavic language are not the same.
Branches of Slavic languages:
|
|
|
2. Origin
Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarities between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the “Balto-Slavic proto-language”, according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, which later split into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language. It has not been established in what territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European/Balto-Slavic occurred. It can be assumed that it occurred to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialectal variants arose later. The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e., during the period of formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of different geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of Slavic languages.
The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the oldest - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic linguistic contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.
3. History of development
Bascan slab, 11th century, Krk, Croatia
IN early period During the development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants was formed, consonantism was significantly simplified, the reduction stage became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is part of the satem group (sрьдьce, pisati, prositi, cf. Lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zьrno, znati, zima, wed. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was implemented inconsistently: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent to the name.
Novgorod birch bark charter of the 14th century
Most of the suffixes were already formed on Proto-Slavic soil. In the early period of its development, the Proto-Slavic language experienced a number of transformations in the field of vocabulary. Having retained in most cases the old Indo-European vocabulary, he at the same time lost some lexemes (for example, some terms from the field of social relations, nature, etc.). Many words were lost due to various kinds of prohibitions (taboos). For example, the name of oak was lost - the Indo-European perkuos, from which the Latin quercus. The old Indo-European root was preserved only in the name of the pagan god Perun. The tabooistic dǫbъ was established in the Slavic language, from where Russian. "oak", Polish dąb, Bulgarian dab, etc. The Indo-European name for the bear has been lost. It is preserved only in the new scientific term “Arctic” (cf. Greek. ἄρκτος ). The Indo-European word in Proto-Slavic was replaced by the taboo combination of words *medvědь (originally “honey eater”, from honey and *ěd-).
Zograph Codex, X-XI centuries.
The period of the Balto-Slavic community is characterized by the borrowing of words from the Balts. During this period, vowel sonants were lost in the Proto-Slavic language, in their place diphthong combinations appeared in the position before consonants and the sequence “vowel sonant before vowels” (sъmьrti, but umirati), intonations (acute and circumflex) became relevant features. The most important processes of the Proto-Slavic period were the loss of closed syllables and the softening of consonants before the iota. In connection with the first process, all ancient diphthong combinations turned into monophthongs, smooth syllabic, nasal vowels arose, and a shift in the syllable division occurred, which in turn caused a simplification of consonant groups and the phenomenon of intersyllabic dissimilation. These ancient processes left their mark on all modern Slavic languages, which is reflected in many alternations: cf. rus. “reap - reap”; “take - I’ll take”, “name - names” , Czech ziti - znu, vziti - vezmu; Serbohorv. zheti - we press, uzeti - we will use, name - names. The softening of consonants before the yot is reflected in the form of alternations s - sh, z - zh, etc. All these processes had a strong impact on the grammatical structure and the system of inflections. In connection with the softening of the consonants before the iota, the so-called process was experienced. first palatalization of the posterior palatal: k > h, g > g, x > w. On this basis, even in the Proto-Slavic language, the alternations k: h, g: zh, x: w were formed, which had big influence on nominal and verbal word formation.
Later, the second and third palatalizations of the posterior palatal developed, as a result of which the alternations arose: c, g: dz (z), x: s (x). The name changed according to cases and numbers. In addition to the singular and plural numbers, there was a dual number, which was later lost in almost all Slavic languages (it remained rudimentary in Ukrainian and Croatian).
There were nominal stems that performed the functions of definitions. In the late Proto-Slavic period, pronominal adjectives arose. The verb had the bases of the infinitive and the present tense. From the first, the infinitive, supin, aorist, imperfect, participles in -l, active participles of the past tense in -в and passive participles in -n were formed. From the bases of the present tense, the present tense, the imperative mood, and the active participle of the present tense were formed. Later, in some Slavic languages, an imperfect began to form from this stem.
Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: eastern, western and southern. From them the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. In the West Slavic group there were 3 subgroups: Lechitic, Serbo-Sorbian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was the most differentiated in terms of dialect.
The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period of the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. In the XII-XIII centuries. further differentiation of the Slavic languages took place, and the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь, characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language, were lost. In some cases they disappeared, in others they became fully formed vowels. As a result, significant changes occurred in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.
4. Phonetics
Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages. Polish and Kashubian languages retain two nasal vowels - ą and ę, which are lost in other Slavic languages. In different Slavic languages, stress is implemented differently. In Czech, Slovak and Lusatian the stress usually falls on the first syllable of a word; in Polish - to the penultimate; in Serbo-Croatian, any syllable except the last one can be stressed; in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, stress can fall on any syllable of a word.
5. Writing
The Slavic languages received their first literary treatment in the 60s. 9th century The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Constantine the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavic for the needs of Great Moravia. The new literary language was based on the South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. Later he received further development In Bulgaria. In this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic) a wealth of original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From the 9th century no Slavic texts have survived. The most ancient ones date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuel of 993, the Varosha inscription of 996 and others. Since the 11th century. More Slavic monuments have survived.
Modern Slavic languages use alphabets based on Cyrillic and Latin. Glagolitic script is used in Catholic worship in Montenegro and several coastal areas in Croatia. In Bosnia, for some time, the Arabic alphabet was also used in parallel with the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet.
6. Literary languages
In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary language were performed by foreign languages (in Rus' - the Old Church Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).
The Russian literary language has experienced centuries-long and complex evolution. It absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Church Slavonic language, and was influenced by many European languages.
In the Czech Republic in the 18th century. literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, has almost disappeared. Dominated the cities German. During the period of national revival in the Czech Republic, the language of the 16th century was artificially revived, which at that time was already far from vernacular. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th-20th centuries. reflects the interaction between the old book language and the spoken language. The Slovak literary language had a different history; it developed on the basis of the folk language. In Serbia until the 19th century. The Church Slavonic language of the Russian version dominated. In the 18th century the process of bringing this language closer to the folk one began. As a result of the reform carried out by Vuk Karadzic in the mid-19th century, a new literary language was created. The Macedonian literary language was finally formed in the middle of the 20th century.
In addition to the “large” Slavic languages, there are a number of small Slavic literary languages (microlanguages), which usually function alongside the national literary languages and serve either relatively small ethnic groups, or even individual literary genres.
Literature
- Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, M., 1951.
- Bernshtein S. B. Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Introduction. Phonetics. M., 1961.
- Bernshtein S. B. Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Alternations. Name bases. M., 1974.
- Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.
- Nachtigal R. Slavic languages, trans. from Slovenia, M., 1963.
- Entering the historical tradition of Slovenian languages. Per ed. O. S. Melnichuk. Kiev, 1966.
- National revival and formation of Slavic literary languages. M., 1978.
- Boshkovich R. Fundamentals of comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Phonetics and word formation. M., 1984.
- Birnbaum H. Proto-Slavic language. Achievements and problems of its reconstruction, trans. from English, M., 1987.
- Vaillant A. Grammaire comparee des langues slaves, t. 1-5. Lyon - P., 1950-77.
Notes
- Balto-Slavonic Natural Language Processing 2009 - w3.erss.univ-tlse2.fr/index.jsp?perso=kupsc&subURL=bsnlp/m/CFP.html
- http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm - www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm
- Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (Languages spoken by more than 10 million people) according to the encyclopedia - www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257013011437361 Encarta. Archived from the original - encarta.msn.com/media_701500404/languages_spoken_by_more_than_10_million_people.html October 31, 2009.
- Omniglot - www.omniglot.com/writing/macedonian.htm
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 considered by some as a separate language
- Vasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?basename=\usr\local\share\starling\morpho\vasmer\vasmer&root=/usr/local/share/starling/morpho&morpho=0 - 1st ed. - T. 1-4. - M., 1964-1973.
This abstract is based on an article from Russian Wikipedia. , Slavic languages.
Text is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license.
branch
Languages of Eurasia
Indo-European family
East Slavic, West Slavic, South Slavic groups
XII-XIII centuries n. e.
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Slavic languages- a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is more than 400 million people. They are distinguished by a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, a system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intensive contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.
The long-term independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences of a material, functional and typological nature.
- 1 Classification
- 2 Origin
- 2.1 Modern research
- 3 Development history
- 4 Phonetics
- 5 Writing
- 6 Literary languages
- 7 See also
- 8 Notes
- 9 Literature
Classification
Slavic languages, according to the degree of their proximity to each other, are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialectal division and stylistic structure within each Slavic language are not the same.
Branches of Slavic languages:
|
|
|
Origin
Family tree of modern Slavic languages according to Gray and AtkinsonSlavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarities between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the “Balto-Slavic proto-language”, according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, which later split into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.
It has not been established in what territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European/Balto-Slavic occurred. It can be assumed that it occurred to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. over a long period of time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialectal variants arose later.
The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the period of the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were developed, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of Slavic languages.
The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the oldest - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic linguistic contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.
Modern research
In 2003, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson, scientists from the University of Oklad, published their research in the scientific journal Nature modern languages Indo-European family. The data obtained indicate that the Slavic linguistic unity disintegrated 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. And the Balto-Slavic linguistic unity collapsed 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.
History of development
Main article: History of Slavic languages Bascan slab, 11th century, Krk, CroatiaIn the early period of development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants was formed, consonantism was significantly simplified, the reduction stage became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is part of the satem group (sрьдьce, pisati, prositi, Wed. Lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zьrno, znati, zima, Wed. Lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent to the name.
Novgorod birch bark charter of the 14th century
Most of the suffixes were already formed on Proto-Slavic soil. During the early period of its development, the Proto-Slavic language experienced a number of transformations in the field of vocabulary. Having retained in most cases the old Indo-European vocabulary, he at the same time lost some lexemes (for example, some terms from the field of social relations, nature, etc.). Many words were lost due to various kinds of prohibitions (taboos). For example, the name of oak was lost - the Indo-European perkuos, from which the Latin quercus. In the Slavic language, the taboo dǫbъ was established, from where “oak”, Polish. dąb, Bulgarian dab, etc. The Indo-European name for the bear has been lost. It is preserved only in the new scientific term “Arctic” (cf. Greek ἄρκτος). The Indo-European word in Proto-Slavic was replaced by the taboo combination of words *medvědь (originally “honey eater”, from honey and *ěd-).
Zograph Codex, X-XI centuries.
During the period of the Balto-Slavic community, vowel sonants were lost in the Proto-Slavic language, in their place diphthong combinations arose in the position before consonants and the sequence “vowel sonant before vowels” (sъmрti, but umirati), intonations (acute and circumflex) became relevant features. The most important processes of the Proto-Slavic period were the loss of closed syllables and the softening of consonants before the iota. In connection with the first process, all ancient diphthong combinations turned into monophthongs, smooth syllabic, nasal vowels arose, a shift in the syllable division occurred, which, in turn, caused a simplification of consonant groups and the phenomenon of intersyllabic dissimilation. These ancient processes left their mark on all modern Slavic languages, which is reflected in many alternations: cf. “reap - reap”; “take - I’ll take”, “name - names”, Czech. ziti - znu, vziti - vezmu; Serbohorv. zheti - we reap, uzeti - we will know, name - names. The softening of consonants before the yot is reflected in the form of alternations s - sh, z - zh, etc. All these processes had a strong impact on the grammatical structure and the system of inflections. Due to the softening of consonants before the iota, the so-called process was experienced. first palatalization of the posterior palatal: k > h, g > g, x > w. On this basis, even in the Proto-Slavic language, the alternations k: ch, g: zh, x: sh were formed, which had a great influence on nominal and verbal word formation.
Later, the second and third palatalizations of the posterior palatal developed, as a result of which the alternations arose: c, g: dz (z), x: s (x). The name changed according to cases and numbers. In addition to the singular and plural numbers, there was a dual number, which was later lost in almost all Slavic languages, except Slovenian and Lusatian, while the rudiments of dualism are preserved in almost all Slavic languages.
There were nominal stems that performed the functions of definitions. In the late Proto-Slavic period, pronominal adjectives arose. The verb had the bases of the infinitive and the present tense. From the first, the infinitive, supin, aorist, imperfect, participles in -l, active participles of the past tense in -в and passive participles in -n were formed. From the bases of the present tense, the present tense, the imperative mood, and the active participle of the present tense were formed. Later, in some Slavic languages, an imperfect began to form from this stem.
Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: eastern, western and southern. From them the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. The West Slavic group had 3 subgroups: Lechitic, Serbo-Sorbian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was the most differentiated in terms of dialect.
The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period of the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. XII-XIII centuries further differentiation of the Slavic languages took place, and the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь, characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language, were lost. in some cases they disappeared, in others they became fully formed vowels. As a result, significant changes occurred in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.
Phonetics
In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.
In most Slavic languages, the long/short vowel opposition has been lost, at the same time in the Czech and Slovak languages (excluding the North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in the Slovenian language these differences persist. Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, retain nasal vowels, which are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovenian linguistic areas (in the peripheral dialects of the corresponding languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).
Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of hard/soft consonants in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n' is preserved, in Slovak - t - t', d - d' , n - n', l - l', while in the Western Slovak dialect, due to the assimilation of t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as the hardening of l', as a rule, only one pair n - n' is presented, in a number of Western Slovak dialects ( Považski, Trnava, Zagorje) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness/softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - of the old paired soft consonants, only n’ (< *nj), l’ (< *lj) не подверглись отвердению (в первую очередь в сербохорватском ареале).
Stress is implemented differently in Slavic languages. In most Slavic languages (except for Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the stress was also mobile in the extinct Polabian language). Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the Northern Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. A number of languages, primarily Western Slavic, have developed a fixed stress assigned to a specific syllable of a word or beat group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the literary Polish language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern dialect of the Kashubian language, as well as in the Lemko dialect. The stress falls on the first syllable in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Sorbian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, as well as in some Gural dialects of the Lesser Poland dialect. In the Macedonian language, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, varied; the tonic characteristics and stress distribution in word forms are different among dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress varies, but is assigned to a specific morpheme.
Writing
The Slavic languages received their first literary treatment in the 60s. 9th century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Constantine the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavic for the needs of Great Moravia. The new literary language was based on the South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. Later it was further developed in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic) a wealth of original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From the 9th century no Slavic texts have survived. The most ancient ones date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuel of 993, the Varosha inscription of 996 and others. Since the 11th century. More Slavic monuments have survived.
Modern Slavic languages use alphabets based on Cyrillic and Latin. Glagolitic script is used in Catholic worship in Montenegro and several coastal areas in Croatia. For some time in Bosnia, in parallel with the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet, the Arabic alphabet was also used.
Literary languages
In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary language were performed by foreign languages (in Rus' - the Old Church Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).
The Russian literary language has experienced centuries-long and complex evolution. It absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Church Slavonic language, and was influenced by many European languages.
In the Czech Republic in the 18th century. literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, has almost disappeared. German was the dominant language in the cities. The period of national revival in the Czech Republic artificially revived the language of the 16th century, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th-20th centuries. reflects the interaction between the old book language and the spoken language. The Slovak literary language had a different history; it developed on the basis of the folk language. Serbia until the 19th century. The Church Slavonic language was dominant. XVIII century the process of bringing this language closer to the folk one began. As a result of the reform carried out by Vuk Karadzic in the mid-19th century, a new literary language was created. The Macedonian literary language was finally formed in the middle of the 20th century.
In addition to the “large” Slavic languages, there are a number of small Slavic literary languages (microlanguages), which usually function alongside the national literary languages and serve either relatively small ethnic groups, or even individual literary genres.
see also
- Swadesh lists for Slavic languages at Wiktionary.
Notes
- Balto-Slavonic Natural Language Processing 2009
- http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm
- Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (Languages spoken by more than 10 million people) according to the Encarta encyclopedia. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009.
- Omniglot
- 1 2 Sometimes separated into a separate language
- see Meillet's Law.
- Vasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - 1st ed. - T. 1-4. - M., 1964-1973.
- Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - P. 15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
- Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - P. 10. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
- Lifanov K.V. Dialectology of the Slovak language: Tutorial. - M.: Infra-M, 2012. - P. 34. - ISBN 978-5-16-005518-3.
- Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - P. 16. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
- Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - pp. 14-15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Literature
- Bernshtein S. B. Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Introduction. Phonetics. M., 1961.
- Bernshtein S. B. Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Alternations. Name bases. M., 1974.
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- National revival and formation of Slavic literary languages. M., 1978.
- Entering the historical tradition of Slovenian languages. Per ed. O. S. Melnichuk. Kiev, 1966.
- Vaillant A. Grammaire comparee des langues slaves, t. 1-5. Lyon - P., 1950-77.
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| Slavic languages | |
|---|---|
| Proto-Slavic language † (proto-language) | |
| Eastern | Old Novgorod † (Old Pskovsky †) Old Russian † Western Russian † Belarusian (dialects) Russian (dialects) Ukrainian (Rusyn dialects) |
| Western | |
| Southern | |
| Other | literary microlanguages pan-Slavic languages |
| † - dead, split or changed languages | |
| Slavic microlanguages | |
|---|---|
| Eastern | Galshansky | Carpatho-Rusyn | Podlaski | Western Polesie |
| Western | Wichich | Eastern Slovak | Polish | Pannonian-Rusyn |
| Southwestern | Venetian-Slovenian | Gradiscan-Croatian | kaykavian | Molese-Slavic | Prekmurje-Slovenian | rezyanskiy | Chakavian |
| Southeast | Banat-Bulgarian | Pomak | Aegean-Macedonian |
| see also Slavic languages | |
sla
Slavic languages. According to the publication of the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences “Languages of the World”, volume “Slavic Languages”, M., 2005
|
Indo-Europeans |
|---|
| Indo-European languages |
| Anatolian· Albanian Armenian · Baltic · Venetsky German · Greek Illyrian Aryan: Nuristani, Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Dardic Italian (Roman) Celtic · Paleo-Balkan Slavic · Tocharian italics dead language groups highlighted |
| Indo-Europeans |
| Albanians · Armenians · Balts Veneti· Germans · Greeks Illyrians· Iranians · Indo-Aryans Italics (Romans) · Celts Cimmerians· Slavs · Tocharians Thracians · Hittites italics currently defunct communities are identified |
| Proto-Indo-Europeans |
| Language · Ancestor · Religion |
| Indo-European Studies |
Slavic languages- a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is more than 400 million people. They are distinguished by a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, a system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intensive contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.
The long-term independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences of a material, functional and typological nature.
Classification
Slavic languages, according to the degree of their proximity to each other, are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialectal division and stylistic structure within each Slavic language are not the same.
Branches of Slavic languages:
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Origin
Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are most closely related to the Baltic languages. The similarities between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of “Balto-Slavic proto-language”, according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, which later split into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.
It has not been established in what territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European/Balto-Slavic occurred. It can be assumed that it occurred to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. [ ] From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialectal variants arose later.
The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of different geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were developed, the Slavs entered into relationships with the inhabitants of these territories, who were at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of Slavic languages.
History of development
In the early period of development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants was formed, consonantism was significantly simplified, the reduction stage became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is part of the satem group (sрьдьce, pisati, prositi, cf. Lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zьrno, znati, zima, wed. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent to the name.
Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: eastern, western and southern. From them the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. There were 3 subgroups in the West Slavic group: Lechitic, Serbo-Sorbian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was the most differentiated in terms of dialect.
The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period of the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. In the XII-XIII centuries. further differentiation of the Slavic languages took place, and the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь, characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language, were lost. In some cases they disappeared, in others they became fully formed vowels. As a result, significant changes occurred in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.
Phonetics
In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.
In most Slavic languages, the long/short vowel opposition has been lost, at the same time in the Czech and Slovak languages (excluding the North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in the Slovenian language these differences remain. The Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, retain nasal vowels, which are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time, nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovenian language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the corresponding languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).
Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of hard/soft consonants in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n', in Slovak - t - t', d - d', n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect due to assimilation t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as hardening l', usually only one pair is presented n - n', in a number of Western Slovak dialects (Povazski, Trnava, Zagorje) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness/softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian linguistic areas - of the old paired soft consonants, only n' (< *nj), l' (< *lj) did not undergo hardening (primarily in the Serbo-Croatian area).
Stress is implemented differently in Slavic languages. In most Slavic languages (except Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the stress was also mobile in the extinct Polabian language). In Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in Northern Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused a reduction of unstressed vowels. In a number of languages, primarily in Western Slavic, a fixed stress has been formed, assigned to a specific syllable of a word or tact group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the standard Polish language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern dialect of the Kashubian language, as well as in the Lemko dialect. The stress falls on the first syllable in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Sorbian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, as well as in some Gural dialects of the Lesser Poland dialect. In the Macedonian language, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, varied, and the tonic characteristics and stress distribution in word forms are different among dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress varies, but is assigned to a specific morpheme.
Writing
The Slavic languages received their first literary treatment in the 60s. 9th century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Constantine the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavic for the needs of Great Moravia. The new literary language was based on the South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. It was later further developed in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic) a wealth of original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From the 9th century no Slavic texts have survived. The most ancient ones date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of King Samuil of 993, the Varosha inscription of 996 and others. Starting from c. More Slavic monuments have survived.
Similarities and differences between Slavic languages
Due to historical reasons, the Slavic languages managed to maintain significant similarities relative to each other. At the same time, almost each of them has a number of unique features.
| Eastern group | Western group | Southern group | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Russian | Ukrainian | Belorussian | Polish | Slovak | Czech | Serbo-Croatian | Bulgarian | Macedonian | Slovenian | |
| Number of carriers | 250 | 45 | 6,4 | 40 | 5,2 | 9,5 | 21 | 8,5 | 2 | 2,2 |
| Nearest | Belorussian | Ukrainian | Kashubian | Czech | Slovak | Slovenian | Macedonian | Bulgarian | Serbo-Croatian | |
| Writing | ||||||||||