Dutch language phonetics morphology. Morphology and grammar

02.11.2021 -

cracks

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

educational institution

MOGILEV STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER A.A. Kuleshov”

Department of Germanic-Romance Philology

DUTCH

Completed by: 2nd year student of the NF-23 group

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Korshunova Ksenia Alexandrovna

Head: Noskov Sergey Alexandrovich

Mogilev 2009

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE LANGUAGE

HISTORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

SPELLING

PHONETICS

MORPHOLOGY AND GRAMMAR

LANGUAGE AFRIKANS

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE LANGUAGE

Dutch- the language of the Dutch, belongs to the group of Germanic languages (a subgroup of West Germanic languages) of the Indo-European language family. Dutch is often called Dutch or Flemish. In fact, these names refer to the corresponding groups of dialects (Holland is a region in the Netherlands, Flanders is the five Dutch-speaking provinces of Belgium). Writing based on the Latin alphabet (Dutch).

The West Germanic languages go back to the tribal languages of the West Germans, according to the classification of Pliny / Engels, united by the beginning of our era into three groups of tribes - the Ingveons (Saxons, Angles, Frisians), Istveons (Franks) and Erminons (Swabo-Alemanni, Bavarians). In the future, several nationalities, and then nations, were formed from these tribes. The Northern Franks, separating themselves in the course of historical development, gave rise to the Dutch nation; from them the Flemings, the German-speaking part of the Belgian population, will also introduce their origin.

Dutch, or Dutch, is spoken in two countries. Firstly, it is the language of the Netherlands, where it is spoken by about 16 million people. Secondly, it is spoken in the northern provinces of Belgium (West Flanders, East Flanders, Antwerp, Limburg and partly Brabant), where it is spoken by 5 million people. Dutch, along with French, is one of the two official languages of Belgium. In addition, it is the official language of Suriname and the official language of the Netherlands Antilles. The total number of Dutch speakers exceeds 21 million.

The Dutch language is closely related to the Low German dialects. The Dutch language developed on the basis of the dialects of the tribes that lived in the territory of the present-day Netherlands and the northern part of Belgium - the Franks, Frisians and Saxons. Its main component was the Old West Low Frankish dialect; the influence of the tribal dialects of the Frisians and especially the Saxons was comparatively insignificant.

HISTORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

There are three periods in the history of the Dutch language - Old Dutch, Middle Dutch and New Dutch.

Old Dutch period (400 - 1100). There are no written monuments. During this period there were:

1) consonant lengthening;

2) lengthening of vowels in an open syllable;

3) transition al, ol in ou(German halten- nid. houden);

4) transition Þ > d;

5) transition [g] in [γ] .

The reduction of unstressed vowels had not yet taken place, thanks to which there was a rich system of conjugation and declension.

Middle Dutch period (1100 - mid-16th century). Numerous literary monuments (knightly novels, religious and didactic literature). During this period, the dialect basis of the language of literature changed several times (Flemish - Brabant - Dutch (since the 16th century). The modern literary norm of the Dutch language combines a number of Flemish, Brabant and Dutch features. The following changes have occurred:

1) reduction of unstressed endings > restructuring of the inflection system;

2) loss of aspiration of voiceless stops p, t, k;

3) stunning voiced stop and fricative at the end of the word before the deaf;

4) voicing f > v, s > z at the beginning and middle of a word.

The influence of the French language is growing.

New Netherland period (from the middle of the 16th century). After the Dutch bourgeois revolution of 1566, literature actively developed and, accordingly, formed on the basis of the Dutch dialect under the strong influence of the Flemish-Brabant literary tradition, the foundations of a single norm of the literary language. Activities began to normalize the language and streamline spelling. Hendrik Spiegel's Grammar (1584), Kilian's Great Dictionary (1574), Petrus Montanus' Grammar (1635), and David van Hoogstraten's Notes on Noun Gender (1700) are published. Major grammarians of the 18th century - Balthasar Heudekoper and Lambert ten Cate.

New spelling rules (mostly valid even now, although with modifications) were published in 1865 by L.A. those by Winckel and M. de Vries. A further simplification of spelling was proposed in 1891 by R.A. Kollewein, but officially the new spelling (te Winkel and de Vries with Kollewein's modifications) was adopted only in 1947 (in Belgium in 1946).

SPELLING

Basic principles:

1. Vowel length in an open syllable is usually not specially indicated; in a closed syllable it is indicated by doubling the letter ( loop- run).

2. The brevity of the vowel in a closed syllable is not indicated, doubling the consonant letter is used before the vowel ( bommen-bombs).

3. In a language-specific digraph ij at the beginning of a sentence and a proper name, both letters are written in capitals: IJsland.

PHONETICS

Dutch vowels are divided into short and long vowels, but long ones are actually semi-long (compared to German or English long ones), really long ones occur only before r. Short vowels are more open.

As in all West Germanic languages, there are no long consonants, no voiceless stops p, t, k. No stop [g], only slotted [γ]. Dutch is characterized by a combination (in writing sch – school) and falling off in colloquial speech of the terminal - n.

MORPHOLOGYAND GRAMMAR

The morphology of the Dutch language is relatively simple. Over the past hundred years, there have been significant changes in the morphological structure of the literary language in order to bring it closer to the spoken language. The case declension of nouns has been simplified (the dative and accusative cases have fallen out, and the genitive is also rapidly dying); adjectives ceased to agree with the noun in case, leaving insignificant remnants of the difference between weak and strong declension.

Articles in Dutch there are two - indefinite and definite. The indefinite article has a single form for all genders - "een". The definite article has the form "de" for the singular masculine and feminine, as well as the plural of all genders. In the singular, the neuter definite article has the form "het" and " date" in the middle gender.

In the spoken language, the old declension of names has been lost; in the written language, the genitive case forms from feminine nouns in the singular and all genders in the plural are very rarely used. The genitive singular from masculine and neuter nouns are considered archaic.

Adjective retains in the modern colloquial language only the remnants of strong and weak declension, speaking in two forms - in the form without an ending and in the form on "-e": een klein boek - het kleine boek - kleine boeken - de kleine boeken.

LANGUAGE AFRIKANS

Afrikaans language(previously called the Boer language) - since 1925, the second, along with English, the state language of South Africa. It is spoken by about 3.5 million people. It is the youngest of all Germanic languages.

Afrikaans developed in the 17th century on a mixed Dutch dialect basis - with the original northern (Dutch) specifics prevailing - in difficult conditions of contact with other European languages \u200b\u200b(German, English, French, etc.), and partly also with local African languages. It is very significant that Afrikaans arose in isolation from its original linguistic and dialectal basis, on a new, extremely narrow territorial base, in isolation from the written and literary tradition and from the emerging literary norm of the Dutch language. Afrikaans emerged as a literary language in an extremely short period of time (30 - 50 years).

Dutch language! O! This is a silent song! This is a passionate moan! It's an intoxicating wheeze! In short, this is the ecstasy of phonetics! To hell with her grammar! Phonetics! O!!! Nooo! Anyone who has heard or tried to pronounce, which have already become classics - Hue moghren heharte menair! - and in response, with a smiling physique of this same meneir, hear - I! Yay ok hue! Nah, unforgettable!

The most cruel joke about the Dutch language (by the way, it is more correct to say "Brabantian language", but somehow unusual) I heard from a German: the Dutch language was created by a Frenchman to communicate with drunken Germans. Don't know. Harshly said, but there is some truth. So, for example, Brabantian is a very old language, but the rules (grammar, syntax, etc.) are still constantly updated and _strong_ change! Most importantly, the process of word formation is still very stormy! Brabant absorbs hundreds of new English, German and French words! The Dutch are lazy and accommodating - if there is no verb that describes the activities associated with the Internet, then let's, without breaking our heads too much, let's say - interneten (interneten)! Simple and understandable! And after all, no one shouts that national pride has been lost! And the fact that even the last lowered junkie can connect a couple of phrases in English! And the fact that out of more than 20 TV channels, only 5 or 6 are purely Dutch, and the rest of the figs you will understand whose, but they speak English or Turkish there! And the fact that the films here are not translated from the original language, but only subtitles with _very_ artistic translation are given! So I somehow broke off with "Taxi 2" - I don’t even understand French like a dog! That's it! The Germans and the French are quietly resting! Especially the French... uh, digression! :)

So, this happened to me in the first month of my stay in the Netherlands. Culture shock is at its peak: my eyes are round, my smile is stiff, my brain is crazy. I then rented a tiddly little room in the attic of a scary house (not ... a domain house .. or even a home-made house), but in the center of the city! For this dubious pleasure, I paid an unspeakably large amount of money, but because of my shock, I considered it to be happiness! Local capitalism with centuries-old traditions sometimes has fits of senile insanity, and then it suddenly turns out that you can get some kind of financial support just for beautiful eyes! More specifically, a colleague at work, having found out how much I pay for my little room in a house, said that I was entitled to a subsidy for poor living conditions and exorbitantly high rent. I was on fire with ideas and decided to ruin the business of my Dutch aspid renter (local housemaster) with this subsidy. I am told that subsidies are distributed from 9 am to 5 pm at the local city executive committee (hemeinte hauz). Also me, connoisseurs, damn it! I'm good too! Ears hung! I believed! I'll go, I think, to ask. Well, I suddenly wanted to know something, but how to ask about this subsidy in an aboriginal way. They tell me "Hur subsidy"! Elementary! I think I’ll go in like this, I’ll speak casually and even lazily in the local language and I will have a triumph! Aha! Right now!

I'm coming. Healthy room. Everything is beautiful and no one cares about me there. Well, I'm already shy, marially depressed by the magnificence of the revolving doors. I go up to ... uh ... how is it in Russian - a receptionist ... well, the girl is so special, she sits at the entrance and smiles at everyone. I ask her: What about "hoor subsidies"? The girl swallowed like a stake. She straightened herself up like that, curled up, blushed, but asked again, they say, what do you want? Well, I'm dull to her and I repeat that I want a "khur subsidy"! Hur! Subsidy! Understand? Hur! And she suddenly got excited! Screamed at me! She wheezed all over with her inimitable Brabantian pronunciation ... I retreated of course! You are stupid, I think! Does she feel sorry for the subsidy or what?! I look, and next to me the second one is sitting, but already older and obviously more experienced, calmer. I to her! And so pitifully, aunty, we ourselves are not local, give khur a subsidy, as much as you can. I can't live without her. Give me a subsidy! Hur! Crap! Mother! Yours! Sub! My aunt looked at me so calmly over her glasses and in good English answers so with disgust that she hears about this for the first time, they say, I made a mistake and turned to the wrong address, since the city executive committee, with all its desire, cannot give me this very aforementioned subsidy . I'm sad here! He snorted with his nose, his eyes froze so often, often ... Aunt took pity, entered into a position and said, they say, you are a foreigner, you don’t speak very well (very delicately said - I appreciated it!) maybe you want something else. I will not describe what gestures and facial expressions I showed her what I want. It was a one-man pantomime theater. A bunch of people ran to look at me. Guessed everything that I need. Finally, they figured it out and they say to me: - So you need a "khur subsidy"? Appreciate the idiocy!!! I freaked out! I say: - Well, yes! I want hoor subsidy! The people were embarrassed again. They avert their eyes, giggle so disgustingly. And they say: - No! What you need is not hoor subsidy, but hoor subsidy. - uh - yes, yes. Hur subsidy is not good! You want khur subsidy! - ... (complete stupor - only the eyes of a morgue-morgue) - For hoor subsidies, you need to apply there and there, fill out the form and get your hoor subsidy. Don't ask for more subsidies! We don't have one! And it's not quite normal at your young age to ask for a hoor subsidy!

Without words! In such a completely lost state of feelings, I was escorted out of the city executive committee. I went back to the colleague who advised me all this. I rewrote everything in order. He, too, at first looked at me with disbelief for a minute, and then how he began to laugh! Having laughed, this cheerful offspring of the Low Lands wrote two words huur - rent and hoer - whore (I'm sorry! :-]). Both the first and the second are pronounced as khur, but in the first case, "u" softens towards "o", and in the second, on the contrary, it becomes hard and short. Well, my simple and rude Slavic ear with the imprint of a bear's paw will never catch such subtle maxims .... just like that! Phonetics! :)

PS.
And they say that some Dutch cities have approved local hoor subsidies ("y" is solid! Do not confuse!) especially for old people over 70! Like to maintain dignity! hehe!
http://www.orangesmile.com/ru/glas/fonetika.htm

The mother tongue of approximately 22 million people in Europe: 16 million Dutch and 6 million Belgians. Thus, the number of Dutch speakers exceeds the number of speakers of all Scandinavian languages combined.

In Russia, the Dutch language is usually called Dutch, sometimes Flemish. But in fact, both Dutch and Flemish are variants of Dutch: Dutch is spoken in the west of the Netherlands, Flemish in Belgium.

The Dutch language is characterized by the existence of numerous dialects, the speakers of which do not immediately understand each other, although the differences relate mainly to the field of phonetics, in the field of vocabulary and grammar, the difference is insignificant. In addition, the Dutch language also has a "little brother" - the Afrikaans language. It is the first language of six million citizens of South Africa (including three million people of color) and the second or third language of another nine million inhabitants of the same country.

The following facts speak about the originality of the Dutch linguistic culture (and mentality! - approx. L.K.): the Dutch have always been more willing to study foreign languages than to impose their own on other peoples. Even in their former colonial empire, the Dutch never defended their linguistic interests. The great Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam wrote exclusively in Latin; more than half of Vincent van Gogh's letters are written in French. It is also curious that the orthographic norm of the Dutch language was developed only in the 19th century. - and in 1998 the Dictionary of the Dutch language will be completed, work on which has been going on since 1852; it will be the world's largest explanatory dictionary - in 40 huge volumes (44 thousand pages in two columns)."

This quote is taken from the preface to a Dutch textbook for Russians.

Phonetics- So, the Dutch language ... Or rather the Dutch language ... What can you compare its unique sound with? Can you imagine a drunken German sailor trying to speak English? If you can, you will hear all the poetry of this language! Joke!

Russians, who, thanks to their native language, have a rich phonetic base, nevertheless face difficulties. I mean articulation. When speaking, the Dutch use different facial muscles than Russians. And it greatly affects the pronunciation. You need to get used to opening your mouth wider when speaking, otherwise you will not be understood. Why? Dutch has a difference in the pronunciation of double and single vowels. To feel the difference, I advise you to take a few lessons from local speech therapists who work with foreigners. If interested, I suggest reading and doing the exercises I received from my speech therapist. And also in the "Links", in the "Dutch language" section, you can read the "Dutch Grammar" in Russian, phonetics is also explained there.

If you do not have a "musical" ear, you may also encounter another problem - the sound of many words (this is not just my opinion) is perceived in the same way. It is very difficult to remember and reproduce them, especially at first, when English is very difficult. And not only because everyone around can speak it. Just while you painfully remember how to say it in Dutch, English words will already be spinning in the language. Foreigners who find themselves in an environment of Dutch who do not speak English at all make progress and master spoken Dutch quite quickly.

For those who are interested, I suggest downloading and listening to the Dutch version of the fairy tale "Little Red Riding Hood" (MP3 file 6.21 MB). Pay attention to Riding Hood's manner of speaking and behavior. If you compare a Dutch fairy tale with a Russian counterpart, you will understand the difference between Dutch and Russian women :-))

Grammar- Despite the rather simple grammar, the Dutch language is complex. Roughly speaking, this is a mixture of English and German. And German is much closer to it. The Dutch are able to understand German speech. The Dutch language is close not only to German vocabulary, but also to phonetics. One can even draw an analogy between the Russian and Ukrainian languages. I don't know about the Germans, but Russians who know German learn Dutch more easily than English speakers. For example, the pronunciation of numerals is taken from the German language. Russians and Englishmen will say "twenty-one", and the Dutch and Germans - "one and twenty" :-))

The articles of nouns are also a particular problem. Dutch uses the indefinite article (een), the definite article (de) for masculine-feminine nouns, and (het) for the neuter. Depending on the articles, demonstrative pronouns and adjective endings change. Therefore, nouns must be memorized along with articles.

Another pearl in the Dutch language is verbs with separable prefixes. Or rather, not so much their existence, but a huge number of rules, in which case where this prefix "leaves".

If you live in Holland, you can buy yourself a Dutch grammar for foreigners. Read an overview of grammar textbooks here.

Vocabulary normative- huge. An adult educated Dutchman knows 50-70 thousand words (in the passive). Children of 12 years of age have 12-17 thousand words in their liabilities. The task of language learning is complicated by the fact that in Dutch there are large differences between the "written" language and spoken language. You must know the "written" language in order to read the press, popular science articles and textbooks. Spoken language is simpler, words are not so beautiful, but more understandable. Intensive Dutch courses for foreigners (level 5-6) for a year of study give you 5-6 thousand Dutch words in the colloquial part. This is the minimum you need to know in order to feel confident in everyday communication. But this vocabulary is not enough for training or skilled work.

The task is difficult, it saves the fact that in the Dutch language, like Russian, there are many borrowed words from French, English and German. And of course, a deep bow to Tsar Peter for something like 1000 words that came into the Russian language from the Dutch. I will tell you a story that happened after my arrival, when I did not know a word of Dutch. We sit with my husband and discuss household chores. He says that he can't remember the English name for the item he means. I asked him to speak Dutch. He says "mattress"! :-)) Little things like that make learning a language at least fun.

Profanity vocabulary- such is not considered in Holland. People often in everyday speech, in print, on TV use quite freely and without the slightest hesitation such words that in Russia are considered rude, obscene and are not used in a decent society. I mean, for example, the most diverse variations of the famous Russian word with the letter "X" :-))

Dictionaries- in Russia you can buy the following dictionaries:

- "Russian-Dutch-Russian dictionary", 65 thousand words, publishing house: "Russian Language", authors Drenyasova Shechkova, ISBN: 5-200-02997-x, the dictionary contains many inaccuracies.

Large Russian-Dutch dictionary, more than 80,000 words and phrases, publishing house: "Lingvistika", authors Mironov P.M., Gesterman L., ISBN: 985-07-0486-6 (2002)

Large dutch-Russian dictionary, about 180,000 words and phrases, authors Mironov S.A., Belousov V.O., Shechkova L.S. and others, ISBN: 5-8033-0038-1, publisher: Living language.

In Holland you can also buy a wonderful but expensive Pegasus dictionary - A.H.van den Baar "Groot Nederlands-Russisch Woordenboek". It costs 99 EUR. The same publishing house has prepared for release the reverse Russian-Dutch dictionary - Groot Russisch-Nederlands Woordenboek van Wim Honselaar for the same price.

textbooks- there are a lot of them in the Netherlands and you will get them for free in the language courses. You can find a brief description of them in the review. Their only drawback is that they are all written in Dutch, at least in English. If you want to have a textbook handy in Russian, I advise you to buy "Goed Zo!" written in an accessible language. The main and most important difference between this textbook and Drenyasova's "Dutch Language" is the mixed Russian-Dutch authorship. That is, you are guaranteed a modern Dutch part and an adequate translation into Russian. "Goed Zo!" Includes two books, an application and 6 audio CDs.
In Russia, the book was published by the St. Petersburg publishing house "Symposium" and can only be purchased at the Dutch Institute in St. Petersburg. In the Netherlands, this textbook (EUR 27.50) and CDs (EUR 87.50) are sold in Amsterdam at Pegasus, a Russian and Slavic literature shop. Information for those who want to find this book:

Goed Zo! I. Mikhailova and H. Boland,

ISBN 5-89091-027-2

de Nederlandse Taalunie Den Haag,

Symposium St. Petersburg 1997

Goed Zo! 2(EUR 27.50) ISBN 9061432863

Goed Zo! Appendix(EUR 22.50) ISBN 9061432871

Click on the book cover above and you will see what the rest of the books look like.

Courses- Today in Holland there are about a dozen methods of teaching Dutch as a foreign language for different educational levels, but it happens that a person with a higher education is put to study in a course intended for people who have just learned to read and write. To understand what kind of course you are offered at the college, read the overview "Methods for learning Dutch".

successes- People who learn a language persistently begin to speak more or less fluently not earlier than in a year or two. This, of course, does not apply to people and children capable of languages. Children under 12 years of age begin to speak after three months, and after a year, subject to additional classes, they speak fluently and without an accent.

Exams- After completing the language courses, you can try to pass the state exam for knowledge of the Dutch language as a foreign language NT2 (something like TOEFL). This exam comes in 2 levels. The first level of NT2-I is for those who studied at ROC up to level 3 and are going to work in low- and medium-skilled jobs. The second level NT2-II is intended for those who have a higher education or are just about to get it, or work as a highly qualified specialist. The exam consists of 4 parts - writing, speaking, listening and reading. Information about the exam can be found on the Informatie Beheer Groep (IBG) website.

That's probably all. Study, watch Dutch TV, communicate with the Dutch. The main thing is to overcome the very first embarrassment when for the first time in your life you need to say "Khue morhen!". And then - it goes! :-))

http://www.hollandia.com/letter_18.htm

SPELLING

Basic principles:

1. Vowel length in an open syllable is usually not specially indicated; in a closed syllable it is indicated by doubling the letter ( loop- run).

2. The brevity of the vowel in a closed syllable is not indicated, doubling the consonant letter is used before the vowel ( bommen-bombs).

3. In a language-specific digraph ij at the beginning of a sentence and a proper name, both letters are written in capitals: IJsland. Introduction to German Philology: Textbook for Philol. fak. un-tov / L.N. Solovieva, M.G. Arsenyeva, S.P. Balashova, V.P. Berkov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 1980. - 319 p. (p. 228).

PHONETICS

Dutch vowels are divided into short and long vowels, but long ones are actually semi-long (compared to German or English long ones), really long ones occur only before r. Short vowels are more open.

As in all West Germanic languages, there are no long consonants, no voiceless stops p, t, k. No stop [g], only slotted [g]. Dutch is characterized by a combination (in writing sch-school) and falling off in colloquial speech of the terminal -n.Ibid (p. 228)

MORPHOLOGY AND GRAMMAR

Noun has the categories of gender, number, case and certainty/uncertainty. There are actually two grammatical genders in the modern language. The distinction between masculine and feminine has been erased. However, most dictionaries traditionally distinguish three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. The replacement of nouns of the general (masculine and feminine) gender by masculine and feminine pronouns is not uniform across dialects of the Dutch language. There are two numbers in Dutch - singular and plural. The leading way in the language of plural formation is the ending "-(e) n", less common is "-s": een linde-- linden, some nouns show hesitation in plural formation, for example: een natie -- natiёn/naties. Several neuter nouns end in "-eren": een kind--kinderen, een ei--eieren.

Articles in Dutch there are two -- indefinite and definite. The indefinite article has a single form for all genders -- "een". The definite article has the form "de" for the singular masculine and feminine, as well as the plural of all genders. In the singular, the neuter definite article has the form "het" and " date" in the middle gender.

Adjective retains in the modern colloquial language only the remnants of strong and weak declension, speaking in two forms - in the form without an ending and in the form on "-e": een klein boy--het kleine-boek--kleine-boecken--de kleine boeken.

Dutch Verbs divided into strong, weak and various kinds of irregular. Strong verbs, as in other Germanic languages, form the preterite and participle form II with alternating vowel roots in ablaut: grijpen (grab)--grep--gegrepen, lezen (to read)--las--gelezen. Weak verbs form base forms with the dental suffix "-d/-t" (or null in case of assimilation): make (to do)--maakte--gemaakt.

The analytic forms of the verb in the Dutch language include the following basic constructions: perfect, pluperfect, futurum I --futurum II, future I in the past (subjunctive I), future II in the past (subjunctive II).

There are two passive voices - the passive of the action and the passive of the state:

· het boek wordt gelezen (reading a book)

het boek is gelezen (book read)

Imperative: lees!- read (those)! Polite form: leest u!-- read!

System pronouns The Dutch language is quite rich: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative and other pronouns. en.wikipedia.org

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

educational institution

MOGILEV STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER A.A. Kuleshov”

Department of Germanic-Romance Philology

DUTCH

Completed by: 2nd year student of the NF-23 group

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Korshunova Ksenia Alexandrovna

Head: Noskov Sergey Alexandrovich

Mogilev 2009

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE LANGUAGE

HISTORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

SPELLING

PHONETICS

MORPHOLOGY AND GRAMMAR

LANGUAGE AFRIKANS

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE LANGUAGE

Niederlá ndish́ to- the language of the Dutch, belongs to the group of Germanic languages (a subgroup of West Germanic languages) of the Indo-European language family. Dutch is often called Dutch or Flemish. In fact, these names refer to the corresponding groups of dialects (Holland is a region in the Netherlands, Flanders is the five Dutch-speaking provinces of Belgium). Writing based on the Latin alphabet (Dutch).1

The West Germanic languages go back to the tribal languages of the West Germans, according to the classification of Pliny / Engels, united by the beginning of our era into three groups of tribes - the Ingveons (Saxons, Angles, Frisians), Istveons (Franks) and Erminons (Swabo-Alemanni, Bavarians). In the future, several nationalities, and then nations, were formed from these tribes. The Northern Franks, separating themselves in the course of historical development, gave rise to the Dutch nation; from them the Flemings, the Germanic-speaking part of the population of Belgium, will introduce their origin.2

HISTORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

There are three periods in the history of the Dutch language - Old Dutch, Middle Dutch and New Dutch.

Old Dutch period (400 - 1100). There are no written monuments. During this period there were:

consonant lengthening;

vowel lengthening in an open syllable;

the transition of al, ol to ou (German halten - nid. houden);

transition Yu > d;

transition [g] to [γ].

The reduction of unstressed vowels had not yet taken place, thanks to which there was a rich system of conjugation and declension.

reduction of unstressed endings > restructuring of the inflection system;

loss of aspiration of voiceless stops p, t, k;

stunning voiced stop and fricative at the end of the word before the deaf;

voicing f > v, s > z at the beginning and middle of a word.

The influence of the French language is growing.

New spelling rules (mostly valid even now, although with modifications) were published in 1865 by L.A. those by Winckel and M. de Vries. A further simplification of spelling was proposed in 1891 by R.A. Kollewein, but officially the new spelling (te Winkel and de Vries with modifications of Kollewein) was adopted only in 1947 (in Belgium in 1946).4

SPELLING

Basic principles:

Vowel length in an open syllable is usually not specially indicated; in a closed syllable it is indicated by doubling the letter (loop - running).

The brevity of the vowel in a closed syllable is not indicated; doubling the consonant letter is used before the vowel (bommen-bombs).

In the language-specific digraph ij at the beginning of a sentence and a proper name, both letters are capitalized: IJsland.5

PHONETICS

Dutch vowels are divided into short and long vowels, but the long ones are actually semi-long (compared to the long ones in German or English), the really long ones occur only before r. Short vowels are more open.

As in all West Germanic languages, there are no long consonants, no aspirated voiceless stops p, t, k. No stop [g], only fricative [γ]. Dutch is characterized by a combination (in the letter sch - school) and the disappearance of the end -n in colloquial speech.

MORPHOLOGY AND GRAMMAR

Noun has the categories of gender, number, case and certainty/uncertainty. There are actually two grammatical genders in the modern language. The distinction between masculine and feminine has been erased. However, most dictionaries traditionally distinguish three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. The replacement of nouns of the general (masculine and feminine) gender by masculine and feminine pronouns is not uniform across dialects of the Dutch language. There are two numbers in Dutch - singular and plural. The leading method of plural formation in the language is the ending “-(e)n”, less common is “-s”: een linde-linden, some nouns show fluctuations in plural formation, for example: een natie - natiёn / naties. Several neuter nouns end in "-eren": een kind - kinderen, een ei - eieren.

Articles in Dutch there are two - indefinite and definite. The indefinite article has a single form for all genders - "een". The definite article has the form "de" for the singular masculine and feminine, as well as the plural of all genders. In the singular, the neuter definite article has the form "het" and "dat" in the neuter gender.

Adjective retains in the modern colloquial language only the remnants of strong and weak declension, speaking in two forms - in the form without an ending and in the form on "-e": een klein boek - het kleine boek - kleine boeken - de kleine boeken.

Dutch Verbs divided into strong, weak and various kinds of irregular. Strong verbs, as in other Germanic languages, form the preterite and participle form II with the alternation of the root vowel in ablaut: grijpen (grab) - greep - gegrepen, lezen (read) - las - gelezen. Weak verbs form basic forms with the help of the dental suffix "-d / -t" (or zero in case of assimilation): maken (to do) - maakte - gemaakt.

The analytic forms of the verb in Dutch include the following basic constructions: perfect, pluperfect, futurum I - futurum II, future I in the past (subjunctive I), future II in the past (subjunctive II).

There are two passive voices - the passive of the action and the passive of the state:

het boek wordt gelezen (reading a book)

het boek is gelezen (book read)

Imperative: lees! - read (those)! Polite form: leest u! - read!

System pronouns The Dutch language is quite rich: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative and other pronouns.7

LANGUAGE AFRIKANS

The phonetics and spelling of the language are similar to Dutch. And in terms of grammar, Afrikaans can be described as the most analytical of all Germanic and even all Indo-European languages. The systems of declension and conjugation underwent a radical simplification in the process of its formation. The noun has lost its generic distinctions, the verb has lost its forms of person and number.10

Until 1925, Afrikaans was considered a dialect of Dutch.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

ru. (Materials of "Wikipedia" - the free encyclopedia).

Introduction to German Philology: Textbook for Philol. fak. un-tov / L.N. Solovieva, M.G. Arsenyeva, S.P. Balashova, V.P. Berkov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M .: Higher. school, 1980. - 319 p. (p. 235).

Typology of Germanic literary languages: collection of articles / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Linguistics. - M.: Nauka, 1976 (p. 119-120).

2 Introduction to German Philology: Textbook for philol. fak. un-tov / L.N. Solovieva, M.G. Arsenyeva, S.P. Balashova, V.P. Berkov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M .: Higher. school, 1980. - 319 p. (p. 166).

3 en. (data 2005)

4 Introduction to German Philology: Textbook for philol. fak. un-tov / L.N. Solovieva, M.G. Arsenyeva, S.P. Balashova, V.P. Berkov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M .: Higher. school, 1980. - 319 p. (pp. 224-227).

5 Introduction to German Philology: Textbook for philol. fak. un-tov / L.N. Solovieva, M.G. Arsenyeva, S.P. Balashova, V.P. Berkov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M .: Higher. school, 1980. - 319 p. (p. 228).

6Ibid. (p. 228)

8 Introduction to German Philology: Textbook for philol. fak. un-tov / L.N. Solovieva, M.G. Arsenyeva, S.P. Balashova, V.P. Berkov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M .: Higher. school, 1980. - 319 p. (p. 235).

9 Typology of Germanic literary languages: collection of articles / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Linguistics. - M.: Nauka, 1976 (p. 119-120).

10 Introduction to German Philology: Textbook for philol. fak. un-tov / L.N. Solovieva, M.G. Arsenyeva, S.P. Balashova, V.P. Berkov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M .: Higher. school, 1980. - 319 p. (p. 236-238).

Similar abstracts:

The history of the penetration of English into Jamaica. Most Creole languages have roots in African languages. The Creole languages of the Caribbean are closer in syntax than in language structure, despite phonetic and lexical similarities.

The essence and features of the morphological norms of the Russian literary language. Basic rules for difficult cases of using nouns. Analysis of the content of the concepts of "purity of speech", "relevance" and "comprehensibility of speech". The jargon nature of professionalism.

Features of the development of the phonetic system and consonantism of the English language. Loss of consonants in some positions. Palatalization of back lingual consonants. Simplification of groups of initial consonants. Changes in the consonant system in the New English period.

Sounds of speech. Vowels and consonants and letters denoting them. Strong and weak position of vowels and consonants in a word. The concept of spelling. The word is the unit of language. significant parts of the word. Root of the word. main members of the proposal. Synonyms. Antonyms.

Categories of gender, number and case of adjectives. Qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives. Full and short form of qualitative adjectives. Some cases of the formation of short adjectives. Stress types of short adjectives.

Adjectives of three endings, two endings and one ending, exceptions. Predicative function of verbal definitions. Participium conjunctum.

Features of the grammatical categories of the Latin language. Tenses, forms, mood, voice and person of verbs. Cardinal and ordinal numbers: features of declensions and agreement with nouns. Example of text translation from Latin.

Dutch language phonetics morphology. Morphology and grammar

SPELLING

PHONETICS

MORPHOLOGY AND GRAMMAR

Recent Entries