Borders of the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century

Domestic policy in the first half of the 19th century

Assuming the throne, Alexander solemnly proclaimed that henceforth politics would be based not on the personal will or whim of the monarch, but on strict observance of laws. The population was promised legal guarantees against arbitrariness. Around the king there was a circle of friends, called the Unspoken Committee. It included young aristocrats: Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosiltsev, Prince A. D. Czartorysky. The aggressively minded aristocracy dubbed the committee "the Jacobin gang." This committee met from 1801 to 1803 and discussed projects of state reforms, the abolition of serfdom, etc.

During the first period of the reign of Alexander I from 1801 to 1815. much has been done, but much more has been promised. The restrictions imposed by Paul I were lifted. Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg universities were created. Universities were opened in Dorpat and Vilna. In 1804, the Moscow Commercial School was opened. From now on, representatives of all classes could be admitted to educational institutions, at the lower levels education was free, paid from the state budget. The reign of Alexander I was characterized by unconditional religious tolerance, which was extremely important for multinational Russia.

In 1802, the obsolete collegiums, which had been the main organs of executive power since the time of Peter the Great, were replaced by ministries. The first 8 ministries were established: the army, the navy, justice, internal affairs, and finance. Commerce and public education.

In 1810-1811. during the reorganization of the ministries, their number increased, and the functions were even more clearly delineated. In 1802, the Senate was reformed, becoming the highest judicial and controlling body in the system of state administration. He received the right to make "representations" to the emperor about obsolete laws. Spiritual affairs were in charge of the Holy Synod, whose members were appointed by the emperor. It was headed by the chief prosecutor, a person, as a rule, close to the king. From military or civilian officials. Under Alexander I, the position of chief prosecutor in 1803-1824. Prince A. N. Golitsyn, who since 1816 was also the Minister of Public Education. The most active supporter of the idea of ​​reforming the public administration system was the state secretary of the Permanent Council, M. M. Speransky. However, he did not enjoy the favor of the emperor for a very long time. The implementation of Speransky's project could contribute to the start of the constitutional process in Russia. In total, the project “Introduction to the Code of State Laws” outlined the principle of separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers by convening representatives of the State Duma and introducing elected judicial instances.

At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a State Council, which would become a link between the emperor and the bodies of central and local self-government. The cautious Speransky endowed all the newly proposed bodies only with deliberative rights and by no means encroached on the fullness of autocratic power. The liberal project of Speransky was opposed by the conservative-minded part of the nobility, which saw in it a danger to the autocratic-feudal system and to their privileged position.

The well-known writer and historian I. M. Karamzin became the ideologist of the conservatives. In practical terms, the reactionary policy was pursued by Count A. A. Arakcheev, close to Alexander I, who, unlike M. M. Speransky, sought to strengthen the personal power of the emperor through the further development of the bureaucratic system.

The struggle between liberals and conservatives ended in victory for the latter. Speransky was removed from business and sent into exile. The only result was the establishment of the State Council, in 1810, which consisted of ministers and other high dignitaries appointed by the emperor. He was given advisory functions in the development of the most important laws. Reforms 1802–1811 did not change the autocratic essence of the Russian political system. They only increased the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. As before, the emperor was the supreme legislative and executive power.

In subsequent years, the reformist moods of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland (1815), the preservation of the Sejm and the constitutional structure of Finland, annexed to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation by N.N. Russian Empire" (1819-1820). The project provided for the separation of branches of power, the introduction of government bodies. Equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle of government. However, all these proposals remained on paper.

In the last decade of the reign of Alexander I, a conservative trend was increasingly felt in domestic politics. By the name of her guide, she received the name "Arakcheevshchina". This policy was expressed in the further centralization of state administration, in police-repressive measures aimed at the destruction of free thought, in the "cleansing" of universities, in the planting of cane discipline in the army. The most striking manifestation of the policy of Count A. A. Arakcheev was military settlements - a special form of recruiting and maintaining the army.

The purpose of creating military settlements is to achieve self-support and self-reproduction of the army. To ease for the country's budget the burden of maintaining a huge army in peaceful conditions. The first attempts to organize them date back to 1808-1809, but they began to be created en masse in 1815-1816. State-owned peasants of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev and Kharkov provinces were transferred to the category of military settlements. Soldiers were also settled here, to whom their families were registered. Wives became villagers, sons from the age of 7 were enlisted as cantonists, and from the age of 18 into active military service. The whole life of the peasant family was strictly regulated. For the slightest violation of the order, corporal punishment followed. A. A. Arakcheev was appointed chief commander of the military settlements. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers had been transferred to the settlement.

However, the idea of ​​the self-sufficiency of the army failed. The government spent a lot of money on the organization of settlements. The military settlers did not become a special class that expanded the social support of the autocracy, on the contrary, they were worried and rebelled. The government abandoned this practice in subsequent years. Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825. He had no children. Due to the ambiguity in the issue of succession to the throne in Russia, an emergency situation was created - an interregnum.

The years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas I (1825-1855) are rightly regarded as "the apogee of autocracy". The Nikolaev reign began with the massacre of the Decembrists and ended in the days of the defense of Sevastopol. The replacement of the heir to the throne by Alexander I came as a surprise to Nicholas I, who was not prepared to rule Russia.

On December 6, 1826, the first Secret Committee was created by the emperor, headed by the chairman of the State Council, V.P. Kochubey. Initially, the committee developed projects for the transformation of higher and local government and the law "on states", that is, on the rights of estates. It was supposed to consider the peasant question. However, in fact, the work of the committee did not give any practical results, and in 1832 the committee ceased its activities.

Nicholas I set the task of concentrating in his hands the solution of both general and private affairs, bypassing the relevant ministries and departments. The principle of the regime of personal power was embodied in His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. It was divided into several branches that interfered in the political, social and spiritual life of the country.

The codification of Russian legislation was entrusted to M. M. Speransky, returned from exile, who intended to collect and classify all existing laws, to create a fundamentally new system of legislation. However, conservative tendencies in domestic politics limited him to a more modest task. Under his leadership, the laws adopted after the Council Code of 1649 were summarized. They were published in the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire in 45 volumes. In a separate "Code of Laws" (15 volumes), the current laws were placed, which corresponded to the legal situation in the country. All this was also aimed at strengthening the bureaucratization of management.

In 1837-1841. under the leadership of Count P. D. Kiselev, a wide system of measures was carried out - the reform of the management of state peasants. In 1826, a committee was set up to set up educational institutions. Its tasks included: checking the statutes of educational institutions, developing uniform principles of education, determining academic disciplines and manuals. The committee developed the basic principles of government policy in the field of education. They were legally enshrined in the Charter of lower and secondary educational institutions in 1828. Estate, isolation, isolation of each step, restriction in the education of representatives of the lower classes, created the essence of the created education system.

The reaction hit the universities as well. Their network, however, was expanded due to the need for qualified officials. The charter of 1835 liquidated university autonomy, tightened control over the trustees of educational districts, the police and local government. At that time, S.S. Uvarov was the Minister of Public Education, who, in his policy, sought to combine the “protection” of Nicholas I with the development of education and culture.

In 1826, a new censorship charter was issued, which was called "cast iron" by contemporaries. The Main Directorate of Censorship was subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The fight against advanced journalism was considered by Nicholas I as one of the top political tasks. One after another, bans on the publication of magazines rained down. 1831 was the date of the termination of the publication of A. A. Delvich's Literary Gazette, in 1832 P. V. Kirievsky's The European was closed, in 1834 the Moscow Telegraph by N. A. Polevoy, and in 1836 " Telescope” by N. I. Nadezhdin.

In the domestic policy of the last years of the reign of Nicholas I (1848-1855), the reactionary-repressive line intensified even more.

By the mid 50s. Russia turned out to be "an ear of clay with feet of clay." This predetermined failures in foreign policy, the defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) and caused the reforms of the 60s.

Foreign policy of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. two directions in Russia's foreign policy were clearly defined: the Middle East - the struggle to strengthen its positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans, and the European - Russia's participation in coalition wars against Napoleonic France. One of the first acts of Alexander I after accession to the throne was the restoration of relations with England. But Alexander I did not want to come into conflict with France either. The normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its activities in the Middle East, mainly in the region of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

According to the manifesto of Alexander I of September 12, 1801, the Georgian ruling dynasty of the Bagratids lost the throne, the control of Kartli and Kakheti passed to the Russian governor. Tsarist administration was introduced in Eastern Georgia. In 1803-1804. under the same conditions, the rest of Georgia - Mengrelia, Guria, Imeretia - became part of Russia. Russia received strategically important territory for strengthening its positions in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The completion in 1814 of the construction of the Georgian Military Highway, which connected the Transcaucasus with European Russia, was of great importance not only in the strategic, but also in the economic sense.

The annexation of Georgia pushed Russia against Iran and the Ottoman Empire. The hostile attitude of these countries towards Russia was fueled by the intrigues of England. The war with Iran that began in 1804 was successfully waged by Russia: already during 1804-1806. the main part of Azerbaijan was annexed to Russia. The war ended with the annexation in 1813 of the Talysh Khanate and the Mugan steppe. According to the Peace of Gulistan, signed on October 24, 1813, Iran recognized the assignment of these territories to Russia. Russia was granted the right to keep its military vessels on the Caspian Sea.

In 1806, the war between Russia and Turkey began, which relied on the help of France, which supplied it with weapons. The reason for the war was the removal in August 1806 from the posts of the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia at the insistence of the Napoleonic General Sebastiani, who arrived in Turkey. In October 1806, Russian troops under the command of General I. I. Mikhelson occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1807, the squadron of D.N. Senyavin defeated the Ottoman fleet, but then the diversion of the main forces of Russia to participate in the anti-Napoleonic coalition did not allow the Russian troops to develop success. Only when M. I. Kutuzov was appointed commander of the Russian army in 1811 did the hostilities take a completely different turn. Kutuzov concentrated the main forces at the Ruschuk fortress, where on June 22, 1811 he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman Empire. Then, with successive blows, Kutuzov defeated in parts the main forces of the Ottomans on the left bank of the Danube, their remnants laid down their arms and surrendered. On May 28, 1812, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which Moldavia was ceded to Russia, which later received the status of the Bessarabia region. Serbia, which rose to fight for independence in 1804 and was supported by Russia, was presented with autonomy.

In 1812, the eastern part of Moldova became part of Russia. Its western part (beyond the Prut River), under the name of the Principality of Moldavia, remained in vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire.

In 1803-1805. the international situation in Europe sharply worsened. The period of the Napoleonic wars begins, in which all European countries were involved, incl. and Russia.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Almost all of central and southern Europe was under Napoleon's rule. In foreign policy, Napoleon expressed the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which competed with the British bourgeoisie in the struggle for world markets and for the colonial division of the world. Anglo-French rivalry acquired a pan-European character and took a leading place in international relations at the beginning of the 19th century.

The proclamation in 1804 of May 18 of Napoleon as emperor further inflamed the situation. April 11, 1805 was concluded. The Anglo-Russian military convention, according to which Russia was obliged to put up 180 thousand soldiers, and England to pay a subsidy to Russia in the amount of 2.25 million pounds sterling and participate in land and sea military operations against Napoleon. Austria, Sweden and the Kingdom of Naples joined this convention. However, only Russian and Austrian troops numbering 430 thousand soldiers were sent against Napoleon. Having learned about the movement of these troops, Napoleon withdrew his army in the Boulogne camp and quickly moved it to Bavaria, where the Austrian army was located under the command of General Mack and utterly defeated it at Ulm.

The commander of the Russian army, M. I. Kutuzov, taking into account Napoleon's fourfold superiority in strength, through a series of skillful maneuvers, avoided a major battle and, having made a difficult 400-kilometer march, joined up with another Russian army and Austrian reserves. Kutuzov proposed to withdraw the Russian-Austrian troops further east in order to gather enough strength for the successful conduct of hostilities, however, the emperors Franz and Alexander I, who were with the army, insisted on a general battle. On November 20, 1805, it took place at Austerlitz (Czech Republic) and ended in victory Napoleon. Austria capitulated and made a humiliating peace. The coalition actually broke up. Russian troops were withdrawn to the borders of Russia and Russian-French peace negotiations began in Paris. On July 8, 1806, a peace treaty was concluded in Paris, but Alexander I refused to ratify it.

In mid-September 1806, a fourth coalition was formed against France (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia and Sweden). In the battle of Jena and Auerstedt, the Prussian troops were completely defeated. Almost all of Prussia was occupied by French troops. The Russian army had to fight alone for 7 months against the superior forces of the French. The most significant were the battles of Russian troops with the French in East Prussia on January 26-27 at Preussisch-Eylau and on June 2, 1807 near Friedland. During these battles, Napoleon managed to push the Russian troops back to the Neman, but he did not dare to enter Russia and offered to make peace. The meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I took place in Tilsit (on the Neman) at the end of June 1807. The peace treaty was concluded on June 25, 1807.

Joining the continental blockade caused severe damage to the Russian economy, since England was its main trading partner. The conditions of the Peace of Tilsit caused strong discontent both in conservative circles and in the advanced circles of Russian society. A serious blow was dealt to Russia's international prestige. The painful impression of the Tilsit Peace was to some extent “compensated” by the successes in the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, which was the result of the Tilsit agreements.

The war began on February 8, 1808 and demanded a great effort from Russia. At first, military operations were successful: in February-March 1808, the main urban centers and fortresses of Southern Finland were occupied. Then hostilities stopped. By the end of 1808, Finland was liberated from the Swedish troops, and in March, the 48,000th corps of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, having made the transition on the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia, approached Stockholm. On September 5, 1809, in the city of Friedrichsgam, a peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden, under the terms of which Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia. At the same time, the contradictions between France and Russia gradually deepened.

A new war between Russia and France was becoming inevitable. The main motive for unleashing the war was Napoleon's desire for world domination, on the way to which Russia stood.

On the night of June 12, 1812, the Napoleonic army crossed the Neman and invaded Russia. The left flank of the French army consisted of 3 corps under the command of MacDonald, advancing on Riga and Petersburg. The main, central group of troops, consisting of 220 thousand people, led by Napoleon, attacked Kovno and Vilna. Alexander I at that time was in Vilna. At the news of France crossing the Russian border, he sent General A. D. Balashov to Napoleon with peace proposals, but was refused.

Usually, Napoleon's wars were reduced to one or two general battles, which decided the fate of the company. And for this, Napoleon's calculation was reduced to using his numerical superiority to smash the dispersed Russian armies one by one. On June 13, French troops occupied Kovno, and on June 16 Vilna. At the end of June, Napoleon's attempt to encircle and destroy the army of Barclay de Tolly in the Drissa camp (on the Western Dvina) failed. Barclay de Tolly, by a successful maneuver, led his army out of the trap that the Dris camp could have turned out to be and headed through Polotsk to Vitebsk to join the army of Bagration, who was retreating south in the direction of Bobruisk, Novy Bykhov and Smolensk. The difficulties of the Russian army were aggravated by the lack of a unified command. On June 22, after heavy rearguard battles, the armies of Barclay da Tolly and Bagration united in Smolensk.

The stubborn battle of the Russian rearguard with the advancing advanced units of the French army on August 2 near Krasnoy (west of Smolensk) allowed the Russian troops to strengthen Smolensk. On August 4-6, a bloody battle for Smolensk took place. On the night of August 6, the burned and destroyed city was abandoned by Russian troops. In Smolensk, Napoleon decided to advance on Moscow. On August 8, Alexander I signed a decree appointing M. I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Nine days later, Kutuzov arrived in the army.

For the general battle, Kutuzov chose a position near the village of Borodino. On August 24, the French army approached the advanced fortification in front of the Borodino field - the Shevardinsky redoubt. A heavy battle ensued: 12,000 Russian soldiers held back the onslaught of a 40,000-strong French detachment all day. This battle helped to strengthen the left flank of the Borodino position. The battle of Borodino began at 5 o'clock in the morning on August 26 with the attack of the French division of General Delzon on Borodino. Only by 16 o'clock was the Raevsky redoubt captured by the French cavalry. By evening, Kutuzov gave the order to withdraw to a new line of defense. Napoleon stopped the attacks, limiting himself to artillery cannonade. As a result of the Battle of Borodino, both armies suffered heavy losses. The Russians lost 44 thousand, and the French 58 thousand people.

On September 1 (13), a military council was convened in the village of Fili, at which Kutuzov made the only right decision - to leave Moscow in order to save the army. The next day the French army approached Moscow. Moscow was empty: no more than 10 thousand inhabitants remained in it. On the same night, fires broke out in various parts of the city, which raged for a whole week. The Russian army, leaving Moscow, first moved to Ryazan. Near Kolomna, Kutuzov, leaving a barrier of several Cossack regiments, turned onto the Starokaluga road and withdrew his army from the attack of the pressing French cavalry. The Russian army entered Tarutino. On October 6, Kutuzov suddenly struck at Murat's corps, which was stationed on the river. Chernishne is not far from Tarutina. The defeat of Murat forced Napoleon to accelerate the movement of the main forces of his army to Kaluga. Kutuzov sent his troops to cross him to Maloyaroslavets. On October 12, a battle took place near Maloyaroslavets, which forced Napoleon to abandon the movement to the south and turn to Vyazma on the old Smolensk road devastated by the war. The retreat of the French army began, which later turned into a flight, and its parallel pursuit by the Russian army.

From the moment Napoleon invaded Russia, a people's war broke out in the country against foreign invaders. After leaving Moscow, and especially during the period of the Tarutino camp, the partisan movement assumed a wide scope. Partisan detachments, having launched a "small war", disrupted enemy communications, performed the role of reconnaissance, sometimes gave real battles and actually blocked the retreating French army.

Retreating from Smolensk to the river. Berezina, the French army still retained combat effectiveness, although it suffered heavy losses from hunger and disease. After crossing the river Berezina already began a disorderly flight of the remnants of the French troops. On December 5, in Sorgani, Napoleon handed over command to Marshal Murat, and he hurried to Paris. On December 25, 1812, the tsar's manifesto was published announcing the end of the Patriotic War. Russia was the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing defeat on it. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. 12 provinces that became the scene of hostilities were devastated. Such ancient cities as Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk, etc., were burnt and devastated.

To ensure its security, Russia continued hostilities and led the movement for the liberation of the European peoples from French domination.

In September 1814, the Congress of Vienna opened, at which the victorious powers decided on the issue of the post-war structure of Europe. It was difficult for the allies to agree among themselves, because. sharp contradictions arose, mainly on territorial issues. The work of the congress was interrupted due to the flight of Napoleon from Fr. Elba and the restoration of his power in France for 100 days. By combined efforts, the European states inflicted a final defeat on him at the Battle of Waterloo in the summer of 1815. Napoleon was captured and exiled to about. St. Helena off the west coast of Africa.

The decisions of the Congress of Vienna led to the return of the old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. From most of the Polish lands, the Kingdom of Poland was created as part of the Russian Empire. In September 1815, the Russian Emperor Alexander I, the Austrian Emperor Franz and the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III signed an act establishing the Holy Alliance. Alexander I himself was its author. The text of the Union contained the obligations of Christian monarchs to provide each other with all possible assistance. Political goals - support of the old monarchical dynasties based on the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legitimacy of maintaining their power), the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe.

At the Congresses of the Union during the years from 1818 to 1822. the suppression of revolutions was authorized in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821), Spain (1820-1823). However, these actions were aimed at maintaining peace and stability in Europe.

The news of the uprising in St. Petersburg in December 1825 was perceived by the Shah's government as a good moment to unleash hostilities against Russia. On July 16, 1826, the 60,000-strong Iranian army invaded Transcaucasia without declaring war and began a rapid movement towards Tbilisi. But soon she was stopped and began to suffer defeat after defeat. At the end of August 1826, Russian troops under the command of A.P. Yermolov completely cleared Transcaucasia from Iranian troops and military operations were transferred to the territory of Iran.

Nicholas I, not trusting Yermolov (he suspected him of ties with the Decembrists), transferred command of the troops of the Caucasus District to I.F. Paskevich. In April 1827, the offensive of Russian troops began in Eastern Armenia. The local Armenian population rose to help the Russian troops. In early July, Nakhchivan fell, and in October 1827 - Erivan - the largest fortresses in the center of the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates. Soon all of Eastern Armenia was liberated by Russian troops. At the end of October 1827, Russian troops occupied Tabriz, the second capital of Iran, and quickly advanced towards Tehran. Panic broke out among the Iranian troops. Under these conditions, the Shah's government was forced to agree to the terms of peace proposed by Russia. On February 10, 1828, the Turkmanchay peace treaty between Russia and Iran was signed. According to the Turkmanchay Treaty, the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates joined Russia.

In 1828, the Russian-Turkish war began, which was extremely difficult for Russia. The troops, accustomed to parade ground art, technically poorly equipped and led by mediocre generals, initially failed to achieve any significant success. The soldiers were starving, diseases raged among them, from which more people died than from enemy bullets. In the company of 1828, at the cost of considerable efforts and losses, they managed to occupy Wallachia and Moldavia, cross the Danube and take the fortress of Varna.

The campaign of 1829 was more successful. The Russian army crossed the Balkans and at the end of June, after a long siege, captured the strong fortress of Silistria, then Shumla, and in July Burgas and Sozopol. In Transcaucasia, Russian troops besieged the fortresses of Kars, Ardagan, Bayazet and Erzerum. On August 8, Adrianople fell. Nicholas I hurried the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Dibich with the conclusion of peace. On September 2, 1829, a peace treaty was concluded in Adrianople. Russia received the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Anapa to the approaches to Batum. After the annexation of Transcaucasia, the Russian government faced the task of ensuring a stable situation in the North Caucasus. Under Alexander I, the general began to advance deep into Chechnya and Dagestan, building military strongholds. The local population was driven to the construction of fortresses, fortified points, the construction of roads and bridges. The uprisings in Kabarda and Adygea (1821-1826) and Chechnya (1825-1826) were the result of the policy pursued, which, however, were subsequently suppressed by Yermolov's corps.

An important role in the movement of the mountaineers of the Caucasus was played by Muridism, which became widespread among the Muslim population of the North Caucasus in the late 1920s. 19th century It implied religious fanaticism and an uncompromising struggle against the "infidels", which gave it a nationalistic character. In the North Caucasus, it was directed exclusively against Russians and was most widespread in Dagestan. A peculiar state - Immat - has developed here. In 1834, Shamil became the imam (head of state). Under his leadership, the struggle against the Russians intensified in the North Caucasus. It continued for 30 years. Shamil managed to unite the broad masses of the highlanders, to carry out a number of successful operations against the Russian troops. In 1848 his power was declared hereditary. It was the time of Shamil's greatest successes. But in the late 40s - early 50s, the urban population, dissatisfied with the feudal-theocratic order in Shamil's imamate, began to gradually move away from the movement, and Shamil began to fail. The highlanders left Shamil with whole auls and stopped the armed struggle against the Russian troops.

Even Russia's failures in the Crimean War did not ease the situation of Shamil, who tried to actively assist the Turkish army. His raids on Tbilisi failed. The peoples of Kabarda and Ossetia also did not want to join Shamil and oppose Russia. In 1856-1857. Chechnya fell away from Shamil. Uprisings began against Shamil in Avaria and Northern Dagestan. Under the onslaught of the troops, Shamil retreated to Southern Dagestan. On April 1, 1859, the troops of General Evdokimov took Shamil's "capital" - the village of Vedeno and destroyed it. Shamil with 400 murids took refuge in the village of Gunib, where on August 26, 1859, after a long and stubborn resistance, he surrendered. The Imamat ceased to exist. In 1863-1864 Russian troops occupied the entire territory along the northern slope of the Caucasus Range and crushed the resistance of the Circassians. The Caucasian war is over.

For the European absolutist states, the problem of combating the revolutionary danger was dominant in their foreign policy, it was connected with the main task of their domestic policy - the preservation of the feudal-serf order.

In 1830-1831. a revolutionary crisis arose in Europe. On July 28, 1830, a revolution broke out in France, overthrowing the Bourbon dynasty. Having learned about it, Nicholas I began to prepare the intervention of European monarchs. However, the delegations sent by Nicholas I to Austria and Germany returned with nothing. The monarchs did not dare to accept the proposals, believing that this intervention could result in serious social upheavals in their countries. European monarchs recognized the new French king, Louis Philippe of Orleans, as well as later Nicholas I. In August 1830, a revolution broke out in Belgium, which declared itself an independent kingdom (previously Belgium was part of the Netherlands).

Under the influence of these revolutions, in November 1830, an uprising broke out in Poland, caused by the desire to return the independence of the borders of 1792. Prince Konstantin managed to escape. A provisional government of 7 people was formed. The Polish Sejm, which met on January 13, 1831, proclaimed the “detronization” (deprivation of the Polish throne) of Nicholas I and the independence of Poland. Against the 50,000 rebel army, a 120,000 army was sent under the command of I. I. Dibich, who on February 13 inflicted a major defeat on the Poles near Grokhov. On August 27, after a powerful artillery cannonade, the assault on the suburbs of Warsaw - Prague began. The next day, Warsaw fell, the uprising was crushed. The constitution of 1815 was annulled. According to the Limited Statute published on February 14, 1832, the Kingdom of Poland was declared an integral part of the Russian Empire. The administration of Poland was entrusted to the Administrative Council, headed by the emperor's viceroy in Poland, I.F. Paskevich.

In the spring of 1848 a wave of bourgeois-democratic revolutions engulfed Germany, Austria, Italy, Wallachia and Moldavia. At the beginning of 1849 a revolution broke out in Hungary. Nicholas I took advantage of the request of the Austrian Habsburgs for help in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. At the beginning of May 1849, 150 thousand army of I.F. Paskevich was sent to Hungary. A significant preponderance of forces allowed the Russian and Austrian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution.

Especially acute for Russia was the question of the regime of the Black Sea straits. In the 30-40s. 19th century Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty was concluded between Turkey and Russia for a period of 8 years. Under this treaty, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 1940s, the situation changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. This had a severe effect on the Russian fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its position in the Middle East and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars at the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th century.

Britain and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. In turn, Nicholas I sought to use the conflict that had arisen for a decisive offensive against the Ottoman Empire, believing that he would have to wage war with one weakened empire, he hoped to agree with England on the division, in his words: "the legacy of a sick person." He counted on the isolation of France, as well as on the support of Austria for the "service" rendered to her in suppressing the revolution in Hungary. His calculations were wrong. England did not go along with his proposal to divide the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I's calculation that France did not have sufficient military forces to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe was also erroneous.

In 1850, a pan-European conflict began in the Middle East, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic churches about which of the churches had the right to own the keys to the Bethlehem temple, to possess other religious monuments in Jerusalem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A. S. Menshikov, was sent to Constantinople. He was instructed to obtain privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right to patronize the Orthodox, subjects of Turkey. However, his ultimatum was rejected.

Thus, the dispute over the Holy Places served as a pretext for the Russian-Turkish, and later the all-European war. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops occupied the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853, supported by England and France, declared war on Russia. Nicholas I published the Manifesto on the war with the Ottoman Empire. Military operations were deployed on the Danube and in Transcaucasia. On November 18, 1853, Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, at the head of a squadron of six battleships and two frigates, defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and destroyed the coastal fortifications. The brilliant victory of the Russian fleet at Sinop was the reason for the direct intervention of England and France in the military conflict between Russia and Turkey, which was on the verge of defeat. In January 1854, a 70,000 Anglo-French army was concentrated in Varna. At the beginning of March 1854, England and France presented Russia with an ultimatum to clear the Danubian principalities, and, having received no answer, declared war on Russia. Austria, for its part, signed with the Ottoman Empire on the occupation of the Danubian principalities and moved an army of 300,000 to their borders, threatening Russia with war. The demand of Austria was supported by Prussia. At first, Nicholas I refused, but the commander-in-chief of the Danube Front, I.F. Paskevich, persuaded him to withdraw troops from the Danubian principalities, which were soon occupied by Austrian troops.

The main goal of the combined Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol, the Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the Allied troops began landing on the Crimean Peninsula near Evpatoria, consisting of 360 ships and 62,000 troops. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov ordered the sinking of the entire sailing fleet in the Sevastopol Bay in order to interfere with the Allied ships. 52 thousand Russian troops, of which 33 thousand with 96 guns from Prince A. S. Menshikov, were located on the entire Crimean peninsula. Under his leadership, the battle on the river. Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol, and retreated to Bakhchisarai. On September 13, 1854, the siege of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months.

The defense was headed by the chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral V. A. Kornilov, and after his death, at the very beginning of the siege, by P. S. Nakhimov, who was mortally wounded on June 28, 1855. Inkerman (November 1854), attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, it was hopeless to continue the defense. In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. After the defeat of Turkey in Transcaucasia, Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kars fell. The conduct of hostilities was stopped. Negotiations began.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris peace treaty was signed, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from Russia, however, she lost the right to protect the Danubian principalities in Serbia. With the "neutralization" of France, Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a blow to the security of the southern borders. The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nicholas' rule, stirred up the public masses and forced the government to work hard on reforming the state.



If in the primary period of its development (XVI-XVII centuries) the political elite of the Russian state demonstrated an almost ideal foreign policy course, and in the XVIII century it made only one serious mistake in Poland (the fruits of which we are reaping today, by the way), then in the XIX century the Russian Empire, although he continues to basically adhere to the paradigm of justice in relations with the outside world, he nevertheless commits three completely unjustified actions. These blunders, unfortunately, still come back to haunt the Russians - we can observe them in interethnic conflicts and a high level of distrust of Russia on the part of the neighboring peoples "offended" by us.

Crossing the Russian army across the Danube at Zimnitsa

Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky

The XIX century begins with the fact that the Russian sovereign assumes the responsibility to protect the Georgian people from complete extermination: on December 22, 1800, Paul I, fulfilling the request of the Georgian king George XII, signs the Manifesto on the annexation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) to Russia. Further, in the hope of protection, the Cuban, Dagestan and other small kingdoms beyond the southern borders of the country voluntarily joined Russia. In 1803, Mengrelia and the Imeretian Kingdom joined, and in 1806, the Baku Khanate. In Russia itself, the methods of work of British diplomacy were tested with might and main. On March 12, 1801, Emperor Paul was assassinated as a result of an aristocratic conspiracy. The conspirators associated with the English mission in St. Petersburg were unhappy with Paul's rapprochement with France, which threatened the interests of England. Therefore, the British "ordered" the Russian emperor. And after all, they did not deceive - after the murder was carried out, they paid the performers in good faith the amount in foreign currency equivalent to 2 million rubles.

1806-1812: Third Russo-Turkish War

Russian troops entered the Danubian principalities in order to induce Turkey to stop the atrocities of the Turkish troops in Serbia. The war was also fought in the Caucasus, where the attack of Turkish troops on long-suffering Georgia was repulsed. In 1811, Kutuzov forced the army of the vizier Akhmetbey to retreat. According to the peace concluded in 1812 in Bucharest, Russia received Bessarabia, and the Turkish Janissaries ceased to systematically destroy the population of Serbia (which, by the way, they have been doing for the last 20 years). The previously planned trip to India as a continuation of the mission was prudently canceled, because it would have been too much.

Liberation from Napoleon

Another European maniac who dreams of taking over the world has appeared in France. He also turned out to be a very good commander and managed to conquer almost all of Europe. Guess who again saved the European nations from a cruel dictator? After the most difficult battles on its territory with Napoleon's army superior in number and armament, which relied on the combined military-industrial complex of almost all European powers, the Russian army went to liberate other peoples of Europe. In January 1813, Russian troops, pursuing Napoleon, crossed the Neman and entered Prussia. The liberation of Germany from the French occupation troops begins. On March 4, Russian troops liberate Berlin, on March 27 they occupy Dresden, on March 18, with the assistance of Prussian partisans, they liberate Hamburg. On October 16-19, a general battle takes place near Leipzig, called the “battle of the peoples”, the French troops are defeated by our army (with the participation of the miserable remnants of the Austrian and Prussian armies). March 31, 1814 Russian troops enter Paris.

Persia

July 1826 - January 1828: Russo-Persian War. On July 16, the Shah of Persia, incited by England, sends troops across the Russian border to Karabakh and the Talysh Khanate without declaring war. On September 13, near Ganja, Russian troops (8 thousand people) defeated the 35,000-strong army of Abbas Mirza and threw back its remnants across the Araks River. In May, they launched an offensive in the Yerevan direction, occupied Echmiadzin, blockaded Yerevan, and then captured Nakhchivan and the Abbasabad fortress. Attempts by the Persian troops to push our troops away from Yerevan ended in failure, and on October 1 Yerevan was taken by storm. According to the results of the Turkmanchay peace treaty, Northern Azerbaijan and Eastern Armenia were annexed to Russia, the population of which, hoping for salvation from complete annihilation, actively supported the Russian troops during the hostilities. By the way, the treaty established the right of free resettlement of Muslims to Persia, and Christians to Russia within a year. For the Armenians, this meant the end of centuries of religious and national oppression.

Mistake No. 1 - Adygs

In 1828-1829, during the fourth Russian-Turkish war, Greece was liberated from the Turkish yoke. At the same time, the Russian Empire received only moral satisfaction from the good deed performed and many thanks from the Greeks. However, during the victorious triumph, the diplomats made a very serious mistake, which will come back to haunt more than once in the future. At the conclusion of the peace treaty, the Ottoman Empire transferred the lands of the Adyghes (Circassia) to the ownership of Russia, while the parties to this agreement did not take into account the fact that the lands of the Adygs were not owned or ruled by the Ottoman Empire. Adygs (or Circassians) - the common name of a single people, divided into Kabardians, Circassians, Ubykhs, Adyghes and Shapsugs, who, together with the resettled Azerbaijanis, lived on the territory of present-day Dagestan. They refused to obey secret agreements made without their consent, refused to recognize both the authority of the Ottoman Empire and Russia over themselves, put up a desperate military resistance to Russian aggression and were subdued by Russian troops only after 15 years. At the end of the Caucasian War, part of the Circassians and Abazins were forcibly relocated from the mountains to the foothill valleys, where they were told that those who wished could stay there only by accepting Russian citizenship. The rest were offered to move to Turkey within two and a half months. However, it was the Circassians, along with the Chechens, Azerbaijanis and other small Islamic peoples of the Caucasus, who caused the most problems for the Russian army, fighting as mercenaries, first on the side of the Crimean Khanate, and then the Ottoman Empire. In addition, the mountain tribes - Chechens, Lezgins, Azerbaijanis and Adygs - constantly committed attacks and atrocities in Georgia and Armenia, protected by the Russian Empire. Therefore, we can say that on a global scale, without taking into account the principles of human rights (and then it was not accepted at all), this foreign policy mistake can be ignored. And the conquest of Derbent (Dagestan) and Baku (Baku Khanate, and later Azerbaijan) was due to the requirements of ensuring the security of Russia itself. But the disproportionate use of military force by Russia still, admittedly, took place.

Mistake #2 - Invading Hungary

In 1848, Hungary tried to get rid of Austrian power. After the refusal of the Hungarian State Assembly to recognize Franz Joseph as the king of Hungary, the Austrian army invaded the country, quickly seizing Bratislava and Buda. In 1849, the famous "spring campaign" of the Hungarian army took place, as a result of which the Austrians were defeated in several battles, and most of the territory of Hungary was liberated. On April 14, the Declaration of Independence of Hungary was adopted, the Habsburgs were deposed, and the Hungarian Lajos Kossuth was elected ruler of the country. But on May 21, the Austrian Empire signed the Warsaw Pact with Russia, and soon the Russian troops of Field Marshal Paskevich invaded Hungary. On August 9, she was defeated by the Russians near Temesvar, and Kossuth resigned. On August 13, the Hungarian troops of General Görgey capitulated. Hungary was occupied, repressions began, on October 6, Lajos Battyani was shot in Pest, 13 generals of the revolutionary army were executed in Arad. The revolution in Hungary was suppressed by Russia, which turned, in fact, into a mercenary of cruel colonists.

middle Asia

Back in 1717, individual leaders of the Kazakhs, given the real threat from external opponents, turned to Peter I with a request for citizenship. The emperor at that time did not dare to interfere in the "Kazakh affairs". According to Chokan Valikhanov: “... the first decade of the 18th century was a terrible time in the life of the Kazakh people. Dzungars, Volga Kalmyks, Yaik Cossacks and Bashkirs from different sides smashed their uluses, drove away cattle and took whole families into captivity. From the east, the Dzungar Khanate posed a serious danger. Khiva and Bukhara threatened the Kazakh Khanate from the south. In 1723, the Dzungar tribes once again attacked the weakened and scattered Kazakh zhuzes. This year went down in the history of the Kazakhs as a "great calamity".

On February 19, 1731, Empress Anna Ioannovna signed a letter on the voluntary entry of the Younger Zhuz into the Russian Empire. On October 10, 1731, Abulkhair and most of the elders of the Younger Zhuz concluded an agreement and took an oath on the inviolability of the contract. In 1740, the Middle Zhuz came under Russian protection (protectorate). In 1741-1742, the Dzungar troops again invaded the Middle and Younger zhuzes, but the intervention of the Russian border authorities forced them to retreat. Khan Ablai himself was captured by the Dzungars, but a year later he was released through the mediation of the Orenburg governor Neplyuev. In 1787, in order to save the population of the Little Zhuz, who were being pressed by the Khivans, they were allowed to cross the Urals and roam in the Trans-Volga region. This decision was officially confirmed by Emperor Paul I in 1801, when the vassal Bukeevskaya (Internal) Horde headed by Sultan Bukei was formed from 7500 Kazakh families.

In 1818, the elders of the Senior Zhuz announced that they had entered under the protection of Russia. In 1839, in connection with the constant attacks of the Kokand on the Kazakhs - Russian subjects, Russia began military operations in Central Asia. In 1850, an expedition was undertaken across the Ili River in order to destroy the Toychubek fortification, which served as a stronghold for the Kokand Khan, but it was only possible to capture it in 1851, and in 1854, the Vernoye fortification was built on the Almaty River (today Almatinka) and the entire Trans-Ili region entered into Russia. Note that Dzungaria was then a colony of China, forcibly annexed back in the 18th century. But China itself, during the period of Russian expansion into the region, was weakened by the Opium War with Great Britain, France and the United States, as a result of which almost the entire population of the Celestial Empire was subjected to forced drug addiction and ruin, and the government, in order to prevent total genocide, was then in dire need of support from Russia. Therefore, the Qing rulers made small territorial concessions in Central Asia. In 1851, Russia concluded the Kuldzha Treaty with China, which established equal trade relations between the countries. Under the terms of the agreement, duty-free barter was opened in Ghulja and Chuguchak, Russian merchants were provided with unhindered passage to the Chinese side, and trading posts were created for Russian merchants.

On May 8, 1866, the first major clash between the Russians and the Bukharians took place near Irdzhar, which was called the Irdzhar battle. This battle was won by Russian troops. Cut off from Bukhara, Khudoyar Khan accepted in 1868 a trade agreement proposed to him by Adjutant General von Kaufmann, according to which the Khivans were obliged to stop raids and looting of Russian villages, and also to release the captured Russian subjects. Also, under this agreement, Russians in the Kokand Khanate and Kokandians in Russian possessions acquired the right to stay and travel freely, arrange caravanserais, and maintain trade agencies (caravan-bashi). The terms of this agreement impressed me to the core - no seizure of resources, only the establishment of justice.

Finally, on January 25, 1884, a deputation of the Mervians arrived in Askhabad and submitted a petition addressed to the emperor to the Governor-General Komarov to accept Merv into Russian citizenship and took an oath. The Turkestan campaigns completed the great mission of Russia, which first stopped the expansion of nomads to Europe, and with the completion of colonization, finally pacified the eastern lands. The arrival of the Russian troops marked the arrival of a better life. The Russian general and topographer Ivan Blaramberg wrote: “The Kirghiz of Kuan Darya thanked me for freeing them from their enemies and destroying the robber nests,” military historian Dmitry Fedorov put it more precisely: “Russian dominion acquired great charm in Central Asia, because it marked itself humane peace-loving attitude towards the natives and, having aroused the sympathy of the masses, was for them a desirable dominion.

1853-1856: First Eastern War (or Crimean campaign)

Here it will be possible to observe simply the quintessence of cruelty and hypocrisy of our so-called "European partners". Not only that, we are again witnessing a friendly association of almost all European countries, painfully familiar to us from the history of the country, in the hope of destroying more Russians and plundering Russian lands. We are already used to this. But this time everything was done so openly, not even hiding behind false political pretexts, that one is amazed. The war had to be waged by Russia against Turkey, England, France, Sardinia and Austria (which took a position of hostile neutrality). The Western powers, pursuing their economic and political interests in the Caucasus and the Balkans, persuaded Turkey to exterminate the southern peoples of Russia, assuring that, "if anything," they would help. That “if anything” came very quickly.

After the Turkish army invaded the Russian Crimea and “slaughtered” 24,000 innocent people, including more than 2,000 small children (by the way, the cut off heads of the children were then kindly presented to their parents), the Russian army simply destroyed the Turkish and the fleet was burned. In the Black Sea, near Sinop, Vice-Admiral Nakhimov on December 18, 1853 destroyed the Turkish squadron of Osman Pasha. Following this, the combined Anglo-French-Turkish squadron entered the Black Sea. In the Caucasus, the Russian army defeated the Turkish at Bayazet (July 17, 1854) and Kuryuk-Dara (July 24). In November 1855, Russian troops liberated Kars, inhabited by Armenians and Georgians (which once in a row we save poor Armenians and Georgians at the cost of thousands of lives of our soldiers). On April 8, 1854, the allied Anglo-French fleet bombarded the Odessa fortifications. On September 1, 1854, British, French and Turkish troops landed in the Crimea. After a heroic 11-month defense, the Russians were forced to leave Sevastopol in August 1855. At the congress in Paris on March 18, 1856, peace was concluded. The conditions of this world surprise with their idiocy: Russia has lost the right to patronize Christians in the Turkish Empire (let them cut, rape and dismember!) And has pledged to have neither fortresses nor a navy on the Black Sea. It doesn't matter that the Turks slaughtered not only Russian Christians, but also French, English (for example, in Central Asia and the Middle East) and even German ones. The main thing is to weaken and kill the Russians.

1877-1878: Another Russo-Turkish War (also known as the Second Eastern War)

The oppression of the Christian Slavs in Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Turks caused an uprising there in 1875. In 1876, the uprising in Bulgaria was pacified by the Turks with extreme cruelty, massacres of the civilian population were committed, and tens of thousands of Bulgarians were slaughtered. The Russian public was outraged by the massacre. On April 12, 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey. As a result, Sofia was liberated on December 23, and Adrianople was occupied on January 8. The way to Constantinople was open. However, in January, the English squadron entered the Dardanelles, threatening the Russian troops, and in England a general mobilization was appointed for the invasion of Russia. In Moscow, in order not to expose its soldiers and population to obvious masochism in a useless confrontation against almost the whole of Europe, they decided not to continue the offensive. But she still achieved the protection of the innocent. On February 19, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were recognized as independent; Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina received autonomy. Russia received Ardagan, Lars, Batum (regions inhabited by Georgians and Armenians, who have long been asking for Russian citizenship). The conditions of the Peace of San Stefano provoked a protest from England and Austria-Hungary (an empire that we had recently saved from collapse at the cost of the lives of our soldiers), who began preparations for a war against Russia. Through the mediation of Emperor Wilhelm, a congress was convened in Berlin to revise the San Stefano peace treaty, which reduced Russia's successes to a minimum. It was decided to divide Bulgaria into two parts: the vassal principality and the Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia. Bosnia and Herzegovina was given to the control of Austria-Hungary.

Far Eastern expansion and mistake #3

In 1849, Grigory Nevelskoy began to explore the mouth of the Amur. Later, he establishes a winter hut on the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk for trade with the local population. In 1855, the period of economic development of the uninhabited region began. In 1858, the Aigun Treaty was concluded between the Russian Empire and Qing China, and in 1860, the Beijing Treaty, which recognized Russia's power over the Ussuri Territory, and the Russian government in return provides military assistance to China in the fight against Western interventionists - diplomatic support and supplies weapons. If at that time China had not been so severely weakened by the Opium War with the West, it would, of course, have competed with St. Petersburg and would not have allowed the development of border territories so easily. But the foreign policy conjuncture favored the peaceful and bloodless expansion of the Russian Empire in an easterly direction.

The rivalry between the Qing Empire and Japan for control of Korea in the 19th century cost the entire Korean people dearly. But the saddest episode occurred in 1794-1795, when Japan invaded Korea and began real atrocities in order to intimidate the population and the elite of the country and force them to accept Japanese citizenship. The Chinese army stood up to defend its colony and a bloody meat grinder began, in which, in addition to 70 thousand soldiers from both sides, a huge number of Korean civilians died. As a result, Japan won, transferred hostilities to the territory of China, reached Beijing and forced the Qing rulers to sign the humiliating Treaty of Shimonoseki, according to which the Qing Empire ceded Taiwan, Korea and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, and also established trade preferences for Japanese merchants.

On April 23, 1895, Russia, Germany, and France simultaneously appealed to the Japanese government demanding that they abandon the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, which could lead to the establishment of Japanese control over Port Arthur and further aggressive expansion of the Japanese colonizers deep into the continent. Japan was forced to agree. On May 5, 1895, Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi announced the withdrawal of Japanese troops from the Liaodong Peninsula. The last Japanese soldiers left for their homeland in December. Here, Russia has shown nobility - it forced the cruel aggressor to leave the occupied territory and contributed to preventing the spread of mass violence to new territories. A few months later, in 1896, Russia signed an alliance agreement with China, according to which it received the right to build a railway line through the territory of Manchuria, the agreement also established Russia's protection of the Chinese population from possible Japanese aggression in the future. However, under the influence of the trade lobby, the government could not resist the temptation to use the weakness of its neighbor, exhausted by an unequal war, and "profit".

In November 1897, German troops occupied the Chinese Qingdao, and Germany forced China to give this region a long-term (99 years) lease. Opinions in the Russian government on the reaction to the capture of Qingdao were divided: Foreign Minister Muravyov and Minister of War Vannovsky advocated taking advantage of the favorable moment to occupy the Chinese ports on the Yellow Sea, Port Arthur or Dalian Van. He argued that it was desirable for Russia to obtain an ice-free port in the Pacific Ocean in the Far East. Finance Minister Witte spoke out against this, pointing out that “... from this fact (the capture of Tsingtao by Germany) ... it is by no means possible to conclude that we should do exactly the same as Germany and also seize from China. Moreover, such a conclusion cannot be drawn because China is not in an allied relationship with Germany, but we are in an alliance with China; we promised to defend China, and suddenly, instead of defending, we ourselves will begin to seize its territory.

Nicholas II supported Muravyov's proposal, and on December 3 (15), 1897, Russian warships stood in the roadstead of Port Arthur. On March 15 (27), 1898, Russia and China signed the Russian-Chinese Convention in Beijing, according to which Russia was provided with leasehold use for 25 years of the ports of Port Arthur (Lushun) and Dalny (Dalian) with adjacent territories and water space and was allowed to lay to these ports of the railway (South Manchurian Railway) from one of the points of the Chinese Eastern Railway.

Yes, our country has not undertaken any violence to solve its economic and geopolitical problems. But this episode of Russian foreign policy was unfair to China, an ally that we actually betrayed and, by our behavior, became like Western colonial elites who will stop at nothing for profit. In addition, by these actions, the tsarist government acquired an evil and vindictive enemy for its country. After all, the realization that Russia actually took away the Liaodong Peninsula captured during the war from Japan led to a new wave of militarization of Japan, this time directed against Russia, under the slogan "Gashin-shotan" (Jap. "dream on a board with nails"), who urged the nation to endure the increase in taxation for the sake of military revenge in the future. As we remember, this revenge will be undertaken by Japan quite soon - in 1904.

Conclusion

Continuing its global mission to protect the oppressed small peoples from enslavement and destruction, as well as defending its own sovereignty, in the 19th century Russia nevertheless makes gross foreign policy mistakes that will certainly affect the way it is perceived by a number of neighboring ethnic groups for many years to come. The wild and completely inexplicable invasion of Hungary in 1849 will in the future cause mistrust and hostile wariness of this nation towards Russian identity. As a result, it became the second European nation “offended” by the Russian Empire (after Poland). And the brutal conquest of the Circassians in the 20-40s, despite the fact that it was provoked, is also difficult to justify. Largely due to this, the North Caucasus today is the largest and most complex region in the federal structure of interethnic relations. Although bloodless, but still an unpleasant fact of history was the hypocritical and treacherous behavior of the St. Petersburg imperial court in relation to allied China during the Second Opium War. At that time, the Qing Empire was fighting the whole Western civilization, which had actually turned into a huge drug cartel. It is also worth noting that the Russian establishment, naturally “attracted” to enlightened Europe, in the 19th century continues to try to build the country into the halo of influence of Western civilization, strives to become “its own” for it, but receives even more cruel lessons of European hypocrisy than before.

At the beginning of the XIX century. there was an official consolidation of the boundaries of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 defined the borders with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54°40′ N. sh. on the coast, and the Russians - to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the Pacific coast from 54 ° N. sh. up to 60° s. sh. at a distance of 10 miles from the edge of the ocean, taking into account all the curves of the coast. The St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826 established the Russian-Norwegian border.

New wars with Turkey and Iran led to further expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire. According to the Akkerman Convention with Turkey in 1826, it secured Sukhum, Anaklia and Redut-Kale. In accordance with the Adrianople Peace Treaty of 1829, Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban to the post of St. Nicholas, including Anapa and Poti, as well as the Akhaltsikhe pashalik. In the same years, Balkaria and Karachay joined Russia. In 1859-1864. Russia included Chechnya, mountainous Dagestan and mountain peoples (Circassians, etc.), who waged wars with Russia for their independence.

After the Russian-Persian war of 1826-1828. Russia received Eastern Armenia (Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates), which was recognized by the Turkmanchay Treaty of 1828.

The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War with Turkey, which acted in alliance with Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia, led to the loss of the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, which was approved by the Peace of Paris in 1856. At the same time, the Black Sea was recognized as neutral. Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 ended with the annexation of Ardagan, Batum and Kars and the return of the Danubian part of Bessarabia (without the mouths of the Danube).

The borders of the Russian Empire in the Far East were established, which had previously been largely uncertain and controversial. According to the Shimoda Treaty with Japan in 1855, the Russian-Japanese maritime border was drawn in the area of ​​the Kuril Islands along the Friza Strait (between the Urup and Iturup Islands), and Sakhalin Island was recognized as undivided between Russia and Japan (in 1867 it was declared joint possession of these countries). The delimitation of Russian and Japanese island possessions continued in 1875, when Russia, under the Treaty of Petersburg, ceded the Kuril Islands (to the north of the Frieze Strait) to Japan in exchange for recognizing Sakhalin as a possession of Russia. However, after the war with Japan in 1904-1905. According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia was forced to cede to Japan the southern half of Sakhalin Island (from the 50th parallel).

Under the terms of the Aigun (1858) treaty with China, Russia received territories along the left bank of the Amur from the Argun to the mouth, previously considered undivided, and Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was recognized as a common possession. The Beijing Treaty of 1860 formalized the final annexation of Primorye to Russia. In 1871, Russia annexed the Ili region with the city of Ghulja, which belonged to the Qing Empire, but after 10 years it was returned to China. At the same time, the border in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bLake Zaysan and the Black Irtysh was corrected in favor of Russia.

In 1867, the Tsarist government ceded all of its colonies to the United States of North America for $7.2 million.

From the middle of the XIX century. continued what had been started in the 18th century. promotion of Russian possessions in Central Asia. In 1846, the Kazakh Senior Zhuz (Great Horde) announced the voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship, and in 1853 the Kokand fortress Ak-Mechet was conquered. In 1860, the annexation of Semirechye was completed, and in 1864-1867. parts of the Kokand Khanate (Chimkent, Tashkent, Khojent, Zachirchik Territory) and the Emirate of Bukhara (Ura-Tyube, Jizzakh, Yany-Kurgan) were annexed. In 1868, the Emir of Bukhara recognized himself as a vassal of the Russian Tsar, and the Samarkand and Katta-Kurgan districts of the emirate and the Zeravshan region were annexed to Russia. In 1869, the coast of the Krasnovodsk Bay was annexed to Russia, and the following year, the Mangyshlak Peninsula. According to the Gendemian peace treaty with the Khiva Khanate in 1873, the latter recognized vassal dependence on Russia, and the lands on the right bank of the Amu Darya became part of Russia. In 1875, the Kokand Khanate became a vassal of Russia, and in 1876 it was included in the Russian Empire as the Fergana region. In 1881-1884. the lands inhabited by Turkmens were annexed to Russia, and in 1885 - the Eastern Pamirs. Agreements of 1887 and 1895. Russian and Afghan possessions were demarcated along the Amu Darya and in the Pamirs. Thus, the formation of the border of the Russian Empire in Central Asia was completed.

In addition to the lands annexed to Russia as a result of wars and peace treaties, the country's territory increased due to newly discovered lands in the Arctic: in 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, in 1879-1881. - the De Long Islands, in 1913 - the Severnaya Zemlya Islands.

Pre-revolutionary changes in the Russian territory ended with the establishment of a protectorate over the Uryankhai region (Tuva) in 1914.

Geographical exploration, discoveries and mapping

European part

Of the geographical discoveries in the European part of Russia, the discovery of the Donetsk Ridge and the Donetsk coal basin, made by E.P. Kovalevsky in 1810-1816, should be mentioned. and in 1828

Despite some setbacks (in particular, the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the loss of territory as a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905), by the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire had vast territories and was the largest country in the world in terms of area.

Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, to Belarus, the Baltic states and Finland were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.

The period of geographical discoveries in the inhabited European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and their scientific generalization were mainly thematic. Of these, one can name the zoning (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal bands, proposed by E.F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Baltic and Caspian Seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; the work of N. A. Severtsov (1855) on the fauna of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the animal world and physical and geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil studies by VV Dokuchaev in the chernozem zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V. V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forest Department for a comprehensive study of the nature of the steppes and finding ways to combat drought. In this expedition, the stationary research method was used for the first time.

Caucasus

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the exploration of new Russian lands, which were poorly studied. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. Kh. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus, determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865. the natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G. V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, Dagestan, the Colchis lowland, and compiled the first general orographic scheme of the Caucasus.

Ural

The description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836, is among the works that developed the geographical idea of ​​the Urals. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; the publication of "The Natural History of the Orenburg Territory" by E. A. Eversman (1840), which gives a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Gofman, V.G. Bragin), during which the Konstantinov Kamen peak was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled that served as the basis for mapping the studied part of the Urals . A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and to the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Siberia

In the 19th century continued exploration of Siberia, many areas of which were studied very poorly. In Altai, in the 1st half of the century, the sources of the river were discovered. Lake Teletskoye (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev) were explored. During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical-geographical and geological studies.

In 1843-1844. A. F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, permafrost and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East, for the first time information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr, the Aldan Highlands, and the Stanovoy Range. Based on travel materials, A.F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published "Journey to the North and East of Siberia" - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the studied territories. This work gives a description of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the features of the relief of Central Siberia, the peculiarity of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, and gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.

In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Zondhagen investigated the orography, geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the Vilyui River.

In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia and in the Amur region.

A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of the south of Eastern Siberia. In 1858, L. E. Schwartz carried out geographical research in the Sayans. During them, the topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and geological structure. He explored the rivers Oka, Amur, Ussuri, the Sayan ranges, discovered the Patom highland. The Khamar-Daban ridge, the shores of Lake Baikal, the Angara region, the Selenga basin, the Eastern Sayan were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky studied the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. Geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition N. P. Bobyr, L. A. Yachevsky, Ya. P. Prein. The study of the Sayan mountain system in 1903 was continued by V. L. Popov. In 1910, he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.

In 1891-1892. during his last expedition, I. D. Chersky explored the Momsky Range, the Nerskoye Plateau, discovered three high mountain ranges Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhay behind the Verkhoyansk Range.

Far East

Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the seas adjacent to them. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G. I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky and others continued their studies of the Tatar Strait, Sakhalin, and adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867. Sakhalin was explored by F.B. Schmidt, P.P. Glen, G.V. Shebunin. In 1852-1853. N. K. Boshnyak investigated and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, the Everon and Chukchagirskoye lakes, the Bureinsky Range, and the Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).

In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.

In the 50-60s. 19th century coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin surveyed the northern coast of the Sea of ​​Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of the Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budischev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. the Amur and Ussuri rivers were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869. N. M. Przhevalsky made a major trip around the Ussuri region. He carried out comprehensive studies of the nature of the basins of the Ussuri and Suchan rivers, crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.

middle Asia

As individual parts of Kazakhstan and Central Asia were annexed to the Russian Empire, and sometimes even anticipating it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists investigated and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, the Common Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was studied by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836. conducted a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoy Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. AI Shrenk studied East Kazakhstan.

In 1840-1845. the Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev conducted the first surveys of the lakes Balkhash, Issyk-Kul, Zaisan. In 1848-1849. A. I. Butakov carried out the first survey of the Aral Sea, discovered a number of islands, Chernyshev Bay.

Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the 1857 expedition of I. G. Borshov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin, and the Bolshie Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. Steppes and deserts are considered by him as natural geographical complexes and mutual relations between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation are analyzed.

Since the 1840s studies of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845. A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857. P.P. Semyonov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia falls on the period of the expeditionary leadership of P.P. Semyonov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867. N. A. Severtsov explored the Kyrgyz and Karatau ranges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ranges in the Tien Shan, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kuhistan, Alay and Zaalay ranges. N. A. Severtsov, A. I. Skassi discovered the Rushansky Range and the Fedchenko Glacier (1877-1879). The conducted research allowed to single out the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.

Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (desert of Karakum and ancient valley of Uzboy).

Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902. conducted by L. S. Berg.

North and Arctic

At the beginning of the XIX century. the opening of the New Siberian Islands. In 1800-1806. Ya. Sannikov carried out inventories of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered the island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811. M. M. Gedenstrom's expedition visited the New Siberian Islands. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilievsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823. P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental studies, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semyonovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.

In 1820-1824. F. P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukotka Peninsula), and predicted the existence of Wrangel Island.

Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered a large bay in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska, named after him. In 1818-1819. the eastern coast of the Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the delta of the largest river in Alaska, the Yukon, was discovered. In 1835-1838. the lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were investigated by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior of Alaska. In 1829-1835. the coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokuim (Kuskokwim) Range. In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.

The Novaya Zemlya archipelago was intensively explored. In 1821-1824. F. P. Litke on the brig Novaya Zemlya explored, described and mapped the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to make an inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833. the first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the southern island of Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835. P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A. K. Tsivolka and S. A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5 ° N. sh., Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island was discovered. The description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from Cape Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The studies carried out made it possible to begin studying the vegetation, fauna and geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K. M. Baer, ​​1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A. I. Shrenk explored the Chesh Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, Vaigach Island, the Pai-Khoi Range, and the polar Urals. Exploration of this area in 1840-1845. continued A. A. Keyserling, who surveyed the Pechora River, explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. Comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula, the Putorana Plateau, the North Siberian Lowland were carried out in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850. The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi Ridge was thoroughly explored.

In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, the inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American explorer R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and for the first time explored the interior of the island.

In 1901, the Russian icebreaker Yermak, under the command of S. O. Makarov, visited Franz Josef Land. In 1913-1914. a Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered in the archipelago. At the same time, a group of members of the distressed expedition of G. L. Brusilov visited the place on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all the energy was directed to the preservation of life, V.I. Albanov proved that the Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.

In 1878-1879. For two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N. A. E. Nordenskiöld on a small sailing and steam vessel “Vega” for the first time passed the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.

In 1913, the Hydrographic Expedition of the Arctic Ocean led by B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaking ships Taimyr and Vaigach, exploring the possibilities of passing the Northern Sea Route to the north of Taimyr, encountered solid ice and, following their edge to the north, discovered the islands, called the Land of Emperor Nicholas II (now - Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and next year - southern coasts, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now - Lesser Taimyr). The western and northern shores of Severnaya Zemlya remained completely unknown.

Russian Geographical Society

The Russian Geographical Society (RGO), founded in 1845 (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO), has made great contributions to the development of domestic cartography.

In 1881, the American polar explorer J. De Long discovered Jeannette, Henrietta, and Bennett Islands northeast of New Siberia Island. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886. the study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.

Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled on the basis of materials from the Ural expedition of the Russian Geographical Society in 1847-1850. For the first time, the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal range were depicted on it with great accuracy and detail.

The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river regions of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and the Yenisei, and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).

Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGS, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the survey of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and photographed (of which over 30,000 km are accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined, and the heights of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as the lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this greatly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.

The heyday of the expeditionary activities of the IRGO falls on 1873-1914, when the Grand Duke Konstantin was at the head of the society, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia, Eastern Siberia and other regions of the country; two polar stations have been established. Since the mid 1880s. The expeditionary activity of the society is increasingly specialized in individual branches - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.

The IRGS made a great contribution to the study of the country's relief. A hypsometric commission of the IRGO was created to process the leveling and make a hypsometric map. In 1874, the IRGS conducted, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “Hypsometric map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand high-altitude marks obtained as a result of leveling. The map made a revolution in the ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to the present day, for the first time the Central Russian and Volga Uplands were depicted. In 1894, the Forest Department, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, with the participation of S. N. Nikitin and D. N. Anuchin, organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, on lakes).

The Military Topographic Service, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, carried out a large number of pioneer reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps of many territories were compiled, which were previously "white spots" on the map.

Mapping of the territory in the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries.

Topographic and geodetic works

In 1801-1804. “His Majesty's Own Map Depot” issued the first state multi-sheet (on 107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost the entire European Russia and called the “Hundred-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on the materials of the General Land Survey.

In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinchel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish officers-topographers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., areas annexed to Russia along the Nishtadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. Survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.

After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were merged. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for the training of professional topographers - a military school, founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographic Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.

In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with officers-topographers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.

Since 1819, topographic surveys on a scale of 1:21,000 began in Russia, based on triangulation and carried out mainly with the help of a beaker. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys on a scale of 1:42,000.

On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Staff of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping has become one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.

In 1816-1852. in Russia, the largest for that time triangulation work was carried out, stretching for 25 ° 20′ along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).

Under the direction of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on the materials of these surveys in the 20-30s. 19th century semi-topographic (semi-topographic) maps were compiled and engraved for the provinces on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.

In 1821, the military topographic depot began compiling an overview topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-layout of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on the creation of the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half sheets).

A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of military topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829. detailed maps were drawn up on a scale of 1:210,000 of the Baku province, the Talysh Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.

In 1828-1832. a survey of Moldavia and Wallachia was carried out, which became a model of the work of its time, since it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were summarized in an atlas of 1:16,000. The total survey area reached 100,000 sq. m. verst.

From the 30s. geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulation became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of the Crimea. Geodetic networks were developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and in other areas.

In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition to the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related to them trigonometrically, provided a reliable justification for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.

From 1857 to 1862 under the direction and at the expense of the IRGO in the Military Topographic Depot, work was carried out to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map was created for the first time in Russia in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the initial meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was repeatedly reprinted.

In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst and forty-verst orographic maps of the Caucasus were published.

Among the best cartographic works of the IRGS is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their environs” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, on the proposal of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.

The Caucasian Military Topographic Department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.

In 1867, a cartographic institution was opened at the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.

Relief maps occupied a special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO. A large relief map was completed in 1868 and exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances at a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances at 1:84,000.

The Caucasian Military Topographic Department, under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky, compiled a 20-verst map of the Transcaspian Territory based on astronomical, geodetic and topographic works.

Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. So, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.

The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at that time. Such, in particular, is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland annexed to it” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).

Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographic service has been the creation of the Military Topographic Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of the military topographic map had been published, and by 1917, 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was rendered in strokes.

In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A. I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps and atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of ​​about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst to an inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts to an inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts to an inch (1:126,000) and the Penza province - on a scale of eight miles to an inch (1:336,000). Based on the results of the surveys, the IRGO published multi-color topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).

The surveys of Mende had an undeniable impact on the further improvement of the methods of state mapping. In 1872, the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map at a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was the most detailed source of information about the area used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. 20th century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and St. Petersburg. It was one of the first Russian topographic maps, on which the relief was depicted by contour lines.

In 1869-1885. a detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one verst in an inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. One-verst maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, the Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.

By the 60s. 19th century the Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts in an inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain of the General Staff I.A. new cartographic work. In 1872, all 152 sheets of the map were completed. The ten-versustka was repeatedly reprinted and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.

By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments traveled more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and eye surveys. According to their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.

In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop a new class 1 triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. The implementation of the KVT program began in 1910. By 1914, the main part of the work had been completed.

By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys was completed on the territory of Poland completely, in the south of Russia (the triangle of Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partially in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, to the east of the survey sites of half- and verst scales.

The results of topographic surveys of the previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: a half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border area, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); a military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), a three-verst map (1:126,000) with a relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); 25-verst military road map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map of Central Europe (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and adjacent foreign states.

In addition to the above maps, the Military Topographic Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and the states adjacent to them, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of the entire Asian Russia.

The corps of military topographers over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918) carried out a huge amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: geodetic points were identified - 63,736; astronomical points (in latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis at various scales over an area of ​​7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of ​​506,247 km2. In 1917, the supply of the Russian army was 6739 nomenclatures of maps of various scales.

In general, by 1917, a huge field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, however, the coverage of the topographic survey of the territory of Russia was uneven, a significant part of the territory remained topographically unexplored.

Exploration and mapping of the seas and oceans

Russia's achievements in the study and mapping of the World Ocean were significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the leadership of I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. V. Lisyansky, made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.

In addition to the hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among which were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M D. Tebenkov, continuously updated their knowledge of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and improved the navigational charts of these regions. Especially great was the contribution of M. D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coasts of America from the Bering Strait to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands, with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia”, published by the St. Petersburg Naval Academy in 1852.

In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. 19th century expeditions of F. P. Litke, P. K. Pakhtusov, K. M. Baer and A. K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical and geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links between the European Pomerania and Western Siberia, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most productive of which were the Pechora expedition of I. N. Ivanov (1824) and the hydrographic inventory of I. N. Ivanov and I. A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps compiled by them had a solid astronomical and geodetic justification. Studies of sea coasts and islands in the north of Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago by Russian industrialists, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. during the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, who explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole was created for the first time, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands was made. In the 20s. Yanskaya (1820-1824) under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and Kolymskaya (1821-1824) - under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel - expeditions were equipped in the same areas. These expeditions carried out on an extended scale the work program of the expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom. They were supposed to survey the banks from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands group. In the eastern part of Wrangel's map, according to local residents, an island was marked with the inscription "Mountains are seen from Cape Yakan in the summer." This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I.F. Kruzenshtern (1826) and G.A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867, it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and, in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer, was named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anzhu and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.

Not only scientific, but also of enormous geopolitical significance for Russia were carried out in the middle of the 19th century. GI Nevelsky and his followers intensive marine expeditionary research in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and the Sea of ​​Japan. Although the insular position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, however, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for ships from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G. I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur Region and Primorye, showing the enormous potential of these richest regions, provided, as G. I. Nevelsky's studies proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to the Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers sometimes at their own peril and risk in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G. I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of Russia to the Amur region under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and joining the Empire of Primorye (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research in the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in the boundaries in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China, were declared cartographically on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.

Russian hydrographs in the XIX century. continued active work on the European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy on the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, the navigation atlas of I.N. Billings on the northern coast, in 1807 - the atlas of I. M. Budischev on the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - the “General Map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836. under the leadership of E.P. Manganari, on the basis of triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western coast of the Black Sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.

In the 19th century intensive study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the detailed hydrographic works of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Colleges under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of the shipping of that time.

In subsequent years, the maps of the atlas were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the western coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others. on the eastern coast of the Caspian. In 1847, I. I. Zherebtsov described the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsov, who over the course of 15 years carried out a systematic survey and description, compiling several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.

In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve the maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the “Atlas of the entire Baltic Sea…” compiled by G. A. Sarychev (1812). In 1834-1854. based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.

Significant changes were made to the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the Reinecke expedition, in 1833 the “Atlas of the White Sea ...” was published, the maps of which were used by seafarers until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic description of the northern coast of Russia”, which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as an example of a geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to MF Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.

Thematic mapping

Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the formation of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th-early 20th centuries.

In 1832, the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire was published by the Main Directorate of Communications. It included general maps on a scale of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps on a scale of 2 versts per inch, and plans on a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to an increase in the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.

Significant cartographic work in the XIX-early XX centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of civilian topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.

An important achievement of domestic cartography was the Marx's Great World Desktop Atlas, published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), containing over 200 maps and an index of 130,000 geographical names.

Mapping nature

Geological mapping

In the 19th century intensive cartographic study of the mineral resources of Russia and their exploitation continued, special geognostic (geological) mapping is being developed. At the beginning of the XIX century. many maps of mountain districts were created, plans for factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs. The history of exploration and development of minerals in the Altai and Nerchinsk mining districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.

Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Salt Mine Maps” compiled by the Mining Department. The maps of the collection belong mainly to the 20-30s. 19th century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary salt mine maps and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. So, among the maps of G. Vansovich in 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of the Pskov and part of the Novgorod province” also has a rich geological content: showing rock and salt springs discovered in 1824…”

An extremely rare example of an early hydrogeological map is the “Topographic Map of the Crimean Peninsula…” with the designation of the depth and quality of water in the villages, compiled by A.N. with different water availability, as well as a table of the number of villages by counties in need of watering.

In 1840-1843. The English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave a scientific picture of the geological structure of European Russia.

In the 50s. 19th century The first geological maps began to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is the Geognostic Map of the St. Petersburg Province (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research found expression in the Geological Map of European Russia (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).

The main task of the Geological Committee was the creation of a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. geological mapping of some regions of Asiatic Russia began.

In 1895, the Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.

Forest mapping

One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is the Map for Reviewing the State of Forests and the Timber Industry in [European] Russia, compiled in 1840-1841, as established by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state-owned forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as on improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected by inquiries through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. In the final form in 1842, two maps were drawn up; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the earliest samples of soil-climatic maps, which marked climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia. A soil-climatic map has not yet been discovered.

The work on mapping the forests of European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the organization and mapping of forest resources and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols were created for the preparation of forest plans and maps, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state lands in Siberia, which became especially widespread after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.

soil mapping

In 1838 a systematic study of soils began in Russia. Mostly on the basis of interrogation information, many handwritten soil maps were compiled. Prominent economic geographer and climatologist Academician K. S. Veselovsky in 1855 compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia”, which shows eight types of soils: black soil, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book Cartography of Russian Soils, published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the Soil Map of European Russia, laid the foundations for modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V. V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N. M. Sibirtsev, K. D. Glinka, S. S. Neustruev, L. I. Prasolov and others) carried out soil, and in fact complex physical and geographical studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works was soil maps of provinces (on a scale of 10 versts) and more detailed maps of individual districts. Under the leadership of V. V. Dokuchaev, N. M. Sibirtsev, G. I. Tanfilyev and A. R. Ferkhmin compiled and published in 1901 the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000.

Socio-economic mapping

Economy Mapping

The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a deeper study of the national economy. To this end, in the middle of the XIX century. survey economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was the “Map of the Industry of European Russia Showing Factories, Factories and Industries, Administrative Places in the Manufactory Section, Major Fairs, Water and Land Communications, Ports, Lighthouses, Customs Houses, Major Quays, Quarantines, etc., 1842” .

A significant cartographic work is the “Economic and Statistical Atlas of European Russia from 16 Maps”, compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. It was the first economic atlas in our country devoted to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climatic, agricultural). In the atlas and its text part, an attempt was made to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. 19th century

Of undoubted interest is the handwritten "Statistical Atlas", compiled in the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the direction of N. A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms, reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It, apparently, was compiled in parallel with the "Economic and Statistical Atlas" of 1851 and, in comparison with it, provides a lot of new information.

A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the Maps of the Most Important Branches of Productivity in European Russia compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistical affairs in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. The materials collected during the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that multifacetedly and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map was an excellent reference tool and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance up to the present.

The first capital atlas of industry was the “Statistical Atlas of the Main Branches of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (the Urals, the Nerchinsk District, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic charts of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.

One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and industrial map of European Russia” by V.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1,680,000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.

We should dwell on one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas-album "Agricultural trade in Russia" (1914), representing a set of statistical maps of the country's agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of "cartographic propaganda" of the potential possibilities of the agricultural economy in Russia to attract new investments from abroad.

Population mapping

P. I. Keppen organized a systematic collection of statistical data on the number, national composition and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The result of P. I. Keppen’s work was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittich. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition, the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region were published at a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittikh, 1875), Asiatic Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), and others.

Among other thematic cartographic works, one should mention the first map of the population density of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “The General Map of the entire Russian Empire with the indication of the degree of population” by A. Rakint at a scale of 1:21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.

Integrated research and mapping

In 1850-1853. The police department issued atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).

In 1897, a student of V. V. Dokuchaev, G. I. Tanfilyev, published the zoning of European Russia, which for the first time was called physiographic. Zonality was clearly reflected in Tanfiliev's scheme, and some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions were also outlined.

In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland was published, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.

The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the capital "Atlas of Asian Russia", published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, with an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for the agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this edition for the first time included a detailed review of the history of mapping in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a well-known historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The content of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflects the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas contains an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section is made up of maps, on which backgrounds of different colors show the general picture of land ownership and land use, which displays the results of the ten-year activity of the Resettlement Administration for the arrangement of settlers.

A special map has been placed showing the distribution of the population of Asiatic Russia by religion. Three maps are devoted to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. The cartograms for agriculture show the proportion of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are devoted to communication routes, post offices and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asiatic Russia.

So, by the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided for the needs of the country's defense, national economy, science and education, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. By the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire had vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state, published by the cartographic institution of A. A. Ilyin in 1915.

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To the question Help! Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. given by the author Oksana Krasnobay the best answer is 1. Social movements in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first years of the reign of Alexander I were marked by a noticeable revival of public life. Topical issues of domestic and foreign policy of the state were discussed in scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, in secular salons and in Masonic lodges. At the center of public attention was the attitude towards the French Revolution, serfdom and autocracy.
The lifting of the ban on the activities of private printing houses, the permission to import books from abroad, the adoption of a new censorship charter (1804) - all this had a significant impact on the further spread of the ideas of the European Enlightenment in Russia. Enlightenment goals were set by I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev, A. Kh. Vostokov, A. P. Kunitsyn, who created the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts in St. Petersburg (1801-1825). Being strongly influenced by the views of Radishchev, they translated the works of Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, published articles and literary works.
Supporters of various ideological directions began to group around the new journals. The Bulletin of Europe, published by N. M. Karamzin, and then by V. A. Zhukovsky, enjoyed popularity.
Most Russian enlighteners considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. However, they constituted only a small part of society and, in addition, remembering the horrors of the Jacobin terror, they hoped to achieve their goal peacefully, through enlightenment, moral education and the formation of civic consciousness.
The bulk of the nobility and officials were conservative. The views of the majority were reflected in N. M. Karamzin’s “Note on Ancient and New Russia” (1811). Recognizing the need for change, Karamzin opposed the plan for constitutional reforms, since Russia, where "the sovereign is a living law," does not need a constitution, but fifty "smart and virtuous governors."
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army played a huge role in the development of national self-consciousness. The country was experiencing a huge patriotic upsurge, hopes for broad transformations revived among the people and in society, everyone was waiting for changes for the better - and did not wait. The peasants were the first to be disillusioned. Heroic participants in the battles, saviors of the Fatherland, they hoped to gain freedom, but from the manifesto on the occasion of the victory over Napoleon (1814) they heard:
"Peasants, our faithful people - let them receive their reward from God." A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country, the number of which increased in the post-war period. In total, according to incomplete data, about 280 peasant unrest occurred over a quarter of a century, and about 2/3 of them took place in 1813-1820. Especially long and fierce was the movement on the Don (1818-1820), which involved more than 45 thousand peasants. Constant unrest was accompanied by the introduction of military settlements. One of the largest was the uprising in Chuguev in the summer of 1819.
2. Foreign policy of Russia in 1801 - early 1812
After accession to the throne, Alexander I began to adhere to the tactics of refusing political and commercial treaties concluded by his father. The foreign policy position developed by him together with his "young friends" can be characterized as a "free hands" policy. Russia tried, while maintaining its position as a great power, to act as an arbiter in the Anglo-French conflict and, having achieved concessions related to the navigation of Russian ships in the Eastern Mediterranean, to reduce military tension on the continent.

Answer from self-awareness[master]
1) The theory of official nationality - the state ideology during the reign of Nicholas I, the author of which was S. S. Uvarov. It was based on conservative views on education, science, and literature. The basic principles were outlined by Count Sergei Uvarov upon taking office as Minister of Public Education in his report to Nicholas I "On some general principles that can serve as a guide in managing the Ministry of Public Education"
Later, this ideology began to be briefly called "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality".
According to this theory, the Russian people are deeply religious and devoted to the throne, and the Orthodox faith and autocracy are indispensable conditions for the existence of Russia. Nationality was understood as the need to adhere to their own traditions and reject foreign influence. The term was a kind of attempt at an ideological justification for the government course of Nicholas I in the early 1830s. Within the framework of this theory, the head of the III department, Benckendorff, wrote that Russia's past is amazing, the present is beautiful, the future is beyond all imagination.
Westernism is a direction of Russian social and philosophical thought that took shape in the 1830s - 1850s, whose representatives, unlike the Slavophiles and the Pochvenniks, denied the idea of ​​the originality and uniqueness of the historical destinies of Russia. Features of the cultural, domestic and socio-political structure of Russia were considered by Westerners mainly as a result of delays and backwardness in development. The Westerners believed that there was only one way for the development of mankind, in which Russia was forced to catch up with the developed countries of Western Europe.
Westerners
In a less strict sense, Westerners include everyone oriented towards Western European cultural and ideological values.
P. Ya. Chaadaev, T. N. Granovsky, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogaryov, N. Kh. Ketcher, V. P. Botkin, P. V. Annenkov, E. F. Korsh, K. D. Kavelin.
The Westerners were joined by such writers and publicists as N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev, A. F. Pisemsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Slavophilism is a literary and philosophical trend of social thought that took shape in the 40s of the 19th century, whose representatives assert a special type of culture that arose on the spiritual soil of Orthodoxy, and also deny the thesis of Westerners that Peter the Great returned Russia to the bosom of European countries and it must pass this way in political, economic and cultural development.
The trend arose in opposition to Westernism, whose supporters advocated Russia's orientation towards Western European cultural and ideological values.
2)
P.S. the Decembrists would have approached the first question

Estate system. In the era of the reign of Alexander I, the nobles had rights and privileges that were legally fixed under Catherine II in the “Charter to the Nobility” of 1785. (Its full name is "The Charter for the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility.")

The noble estate was free from military service, from state taxes. Nobles could not be subjected to corporal punishment. Only a court of nobility could judge them. The nobles received the preferential right to own land and serfs. They owned the wealth of the subsoil in their estates. They had the right to engage in trade, open factories and plants. Their estates were not subject to confiscation.

The nobility united in societies, the affairs of which were in charge of the noble assembly, which elected district and provincial marshals of the nobility.

All other estates did not have such rights.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the population in the empire reached almost 44 million people. The peasantry made up more than 80% of the total population, 15 million peasants were serfs.

Serfdom was preserved in its unchanged form. Only about 0.5% of the peasantry was freed from serfdom by the decree on free cultivators (1803).

The rest of the peasants were considered state-owned, that is, they belonged to the state. In the north of Russia and in Siberia, they made up the bulk of the population. A variety of the peasantry was the Cossacks, settled mainly in the Don, Kuban, in the lower reaches of the Volga, in the Urals, in Siberia and in the Far East.

Alexander I abandoned the practice that was widespread under his father and grandmother. He stopped distributing state peasants as a reward or a gift to his associates.

At the beginning of the 19th century, less than 7% of the population of the Russian Empire lived in cities. The largest of them was St. Petersburg, whose population in 1811 was 335 thousand people. The population of Moscow was 270 thousand people.

Cities remained the main points of trade and industry. Trade was concentrated in the hands of the merchant class, divided into three guilds. The most significant business was conducted by merchants of the first guild. They were both subjects of the Russian Empire and foreigners.

Economic development. Fairs were major centers of trade operations, the most important of which, Makarievskaya, was located near the Makariev Monastery near Nizhny Novgorod.

Favorable geographical position, convenient communication routes attracted here every year a large number of merchants from all parts of Russia and from abroad. At the beginning of the 19th century, there were more than three thousand state and private shops and warehouses at the Makariev Fair.

In 1816, the auction was moved to Nizhny Novgorod. Until 1917, the Nizhny Novgorod fair remained the largest in Russia. It determined trading prices for the whole year ahead.

At the beginning of the 19th century, more than 60% of the serfs paid the master a quitrent in cash. The quitrent system contributed to the spread of crafts. After the completion of agricultural work, the peasants either went to work in the cities, or artisans at home.

Territorial specialization in the production of industrial goods gradually took shape. In one place, yarn was produced, in another - wooden or earthenware, in a third - fur products, in a fourth - wheels. Particularly enterprising and capable managed to pay off the master, get out of serfdom, get free. Families of handicraftsmen and artisans gave rise to many large entrepreneurs - the founders and owners of well-known Russian factory and factory firms.

The needs of economic development led to the expansion of the industrial sector of the economy. Although the preservation of serfdom and strict administrative control over public pursuits held back private initiative, the number of manufactories, factories and plants multiplied. Large landowners created workshops and enterprises for processing agricultural products and mining on their estates. For the most part, these were small establishments where serfs worked.

Sculpture "Water-carrier"

The largest industrial enterprises belonged to the state (treasury). Either state peasants (assigned) or civilian workers worked for them.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the textile industry developed most intensively, primarily cotton production, which produced inexpensive products designed for wide demand. Various mechanisms have been widely used in this industry.

So, in the state-owned Alexander Manufactory located near St. Petersburg, there were three steam engines. Production increased annually by 10-15%. In the 1810s, the manufactory produced more than half of all yarn in Russia. Freelance workers worked there.

In 1801, a foundry and a mechanical plant appeared in St. Petersburg. It was the largest machine-building production in Russia before the 1917 revolution, producing steam boilers and equipment for domestic factories and factories.

Provisions have appeared in Russian legislation that regulate new forms of entrepreneurial activity. On January 1, 1807, the tsar's manifesto "On new benefits granted to the merchants, differences, advantages and new ways to spread and strengthen commercial enterprises" was published.

It made it possible to establish companies and firms on the basis of the merger of the capitals of individuals. These companies could arise only with the permission of the supreme power (all charters of joint-stock companies were necessarily approved by the king). Their participants could now not acquire merchant certificates, not "be assigned to the guild."

In 1807, there were 5 joint-stock companies in Russia. The first, the Diving Company, specialized in the transportation of passengers and cargo across the Gulf of Finland.

In the first quarter of the 19th century, 17 more companies engaged in trade, insurance, and transportation began to operate. The joint-stock form of capital organization and entrepreneurial activity was very promising, allowing to collect a significant total capital. Later, with the development of industry and trade, the joint-stock company became the most important element of the Russian economy. A few decades later, the number of operating companies was already measured in the hundreds.

Questions and tasks

1. The nobility was called the noble class. Explain why. By whom and when were the class rights and privileges of the nobles confirmed? What were they?
2. What new things did the decree on free cultivators introduce into the life of Russia?
3. Analyze the following facts:
   • in the southern steppes and in the Volga region, regions were formed for the production of marketable bread;
   • the use of machines in landowners' farms began;
   • in 1818, Alexander I adopted a decree allowing all peasants, including serfs, to establish factories and plants;
   • in 1815 steamboats appeared in Russia.

   Draw all possible conclusions.

4. What new forms of entrepreneurship appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century?
5. What is a territorial specialization? How did its appearance testify to the development of the economy?