Mysticism as a spiritual and religious phenomenon. Ancient mysteries and secret societies

Mysticism(from the Greek word "mysterium" - secret) denotes the desire for such comprehension of the supersensible and divine with the help of internal contemplation, which leads to a direct connection of the human spirit with the deity and with the supersensible world. This is the flow that gives religious feeling takes precedence over performance external rites and rituals. Wherever an excessively strong religious need finds its satisfaction without an internal counterbalance on the part of clear thinking, which in one way or another would try to account for the content of religious beliefs, there are also psychological causes for the emergence of mysticism. Therefore, there is almost no form of religion among whose adherents mysticism in one form or another would not find a place for itself.

The most ancient birthplace of mysticism is the East: the written records of the Indian and Old Persian religions, as well as the philosophy and poetic creativity of these peoples, are rich in mystical teachings and views. On the basis of Islam, many mystical directions also arose, the most famous is Sufism. On the basis of Judaism, the same worldview was developed by Kabbalah, Sabbatianism, hasidism. The bright and clear folk spirit of the Greeks, aspiring to the earthly, and the practically reasonable spirit of the Romans were not favorable moments for giving mysticism a wide influence among these peoples, although here, too, we find mystical elements in religious customs and beliefs (see, for example, the Eleusinian mysteries) . On the basis of ancient paganism, mysticism developed only under the influence of Eastern views at the moment when the cultural elements of ancient life came into conflict with Christianity. This happened thanks to the Neoplatonists. The philosophers of this trend, and among them the first - Plotinus, contrasted the Christian concept of revelation with a direct contemplation of the divine, which becomes accessible to a person in a state of so-called ecstasy, leading a person beyond the limits of ordinary empirical consciousness. And in moral terms, they considered the highest goal of spiritual life - immersion in the depths of the deity, and the later Neoplatonists believed that this union with the deity could be achieved with the help of external actions, through the use of mysterious formulas and ceremonies.

Not only through the influence of Eastern views and the teachings of the Neo-Platonists, but also due to a simple increase in religious feeling, mysticism also penetrated into the Christian church. Already in the III century, thoughts are expressed about mystical meaning sacred scripture, while about the same time asceticism and the nascent monasticism, with its tendency to rise above the needs of sensuous nature, represent the practical side of this mystical direction. In a systematic form, Christian mysticism (mystical theology) received its expression in the 5th century in writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite. According to the thoughts developed here, the source of mystical knowledge is divine mercy, the mysterious and direct influence of God on man.

These writings gained influence especially from the 12th century, and during the 13th century until the 15th century mysticism appears as a counterbalance to scholasticism, which, of course, could not satisfy the religious feeling with its, for the most part, fruitless subtleties on the basis of words and concepts. It should be added that the development of the Church in the Middle Ages led to the fact that religious life and the form of worship more and more assumed an external character, and the Catholic Church transferred even the center of gravity of its activity to politics. Along with this, the feeling of deep religious dissatisfaction, which has awakened since the time of the Crusades, remained not without influence. Thus, the desire for pure, independent and immediate satisfaction of the religious feeling to an increasing extent made its way - for example, in the work of St. Francis of Assisi.

Renunciation of Saint Francis from earthly goods. Fresco by Giotto, 1297-1299

In no other country, however, did this movement take on such vast proportions or find such strong expression of its deep religiosity as in Germany. german mysticism was the mother of the Reformation, she developed those thoughts from which this latter drew its strength. With unusual clarity, the basic thoughts of German mysticism are already expressed by its first major representative Meister Eckhart . Briefly, the views of German mysticism boil down to the following. The goal of knowledge for her is man in his identity with the deity. In the world in which the soul knows God, it is itself God, and it knows Him to the extent that it already is God. But this knowledge is not rational thinking, but faith; in it God, as it were, contemplates himself in us. Here also finds expression the old idea, which arose in the East, that individuality is a sin. The renunciation of one's personality, one's knowledge and one's will, and the pure contemplation of God constitute the highest virtue: all external deeds are nothing, there is only one "true deed", an internal deed - to give oneself, one's "I" to God. Hidden in this system of thought is a remarkable internal contradiction: owing its origin to individualism, German mysticism directs its preaching against it. However, already Meister Eckhart understood that with such principles it is possible to feel and contemplate religiously, but it is unthinkable to act religiously and morally. He was therefore compelled to admit external activity as well, although the only task here was that the religious essence of the soul should shine through external actions like a spark of divine activity. These actions remain for him, therefore, only an external symbol of mood.

The thoughts developed by Eckhart found an echo everywhere and soon (in the XIV century) spread to Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Thus arose, for example, in Basel the "Union of God's Friends", a mystical society headed by Nicholas of Basel, who was later burned to death. It was a movement which, like all major events in religious history, captured the lower strata of the people and was most closely associated with the expression of social discontent. Johann Tauler , a student of Eckhart, marks a turn from the originally purely contemplative, monastic mysticism of his teacher to practical mysticism: he preached that true Christianity was only about imitating the humble and poverty-stricken life of Christ. The more mysticism became a popular movement, the more theory faded before life, and mysticism became practical. By its striving for pure faith, its disregard for ecclesiastical knowledge and cult, mysticism spread more and more widely among the people and caused that religious ferment from which the Reformation was to arise in the end.

During the period of the Reformation itself, the general excitement of the minds and the unsatisfied desire for a deeper knowledge of God and the world led to mystical fantasies in the field of knowledge as well. Representatives of this process of fermentation, in which theosophical inventions variegated with faith in alchemy and astrology, speculative profundity with fantasies, advanced thoughts with the most senseless superstition, are, among others: Patricius, Paracelsus, Helmont, Weigel, Stiedel and Boehme. The time of the Thirty Years' War was also favorable for the spread of mysticism in Germany, thanks to the decline in spiritual strength that accompanied it.

At the end of the 17th century, under the guise quietism, mysticism found a place for itself in the French Catholic Church, as a reaction against the mechanical, purely external worship of God. In the same century, he found a place for himself in France in the field of philosophy, in mystical theories that arose from that feeling of dissatisfaction that, from the point of view of religious interest, Cartesian philosophy left with its mechanical explanation of natural phenomena. Of the most prominent thinkers in this respect is Blaise Pascal, who taught that the best thing that can be known by man is the Deity and the grace with which it gives redemption to man, and this knowledge is not achieved by the mind, but only by a pure and humble heart. This idea was expressed by him in the famous paradox: "Le coeur a ses raisons, que la raison ne connait pas" ("The heart has its reasons, which the mind does not know").

England was also very rich in mystical sects (Quakers, angel brothers, etc.). The more significant mystics of the 18th century include: Swedenborg, Count von Zinzendorf, founder of the Hernguther fraternal community, etc. At the end of the 18th century and in the first decades of the 19th century, the mystical element, as a reaction against the consequences of the period of enlightenment, against the sober criticism of Kant's philosophy and the secular character of the century, found a place for itself in poetry and philosophy, partly in the formation of mystical unions.

In late Byzantine Orthodoxy, the mystical doctrine was put forward by hesychasm. As for Russia, many writers of pre-Petrine Russia, like Nil Sorsky and others, were already no strangers to mysticism. About half of the 18th century, Martinism and freemasonry . There are many translated and original writings in the Masonic spirit. This direction also passes into the 19th century, when mysticism gained great power even at court, in the highest spheres. Completely aloof from these currents stood the mystic Grigory Skovoroda who taught that the visible is based on the invisible, which constitutes the essence of the visible, and that a person is nothing but a shadow of a hidden person. Of the pre-revolutionary Russian philosophers who adhered to the mystical direction, the most prominent was Vladimir Solovyov, who developed the idea that true knowledge is based on mystical or religious perception, from which logical thinking receives its unconditional rationality, and experience - the value of unconditional reality. The mystical element found expression in Russia also in various religious sects, such as among whips etc.

Three mystical dates by Vladimir Solovyov

At first glance, it seems that mysticism is inevitable even for sober thinking, since every religion and every philosophy eventually comes across something mysterious that cannot be further explained, that is, in other words, it comes face to face with a mystery. However, it makes a big difference whether we recognize the limits of human knowledge and the existence of a mystery beyond these limits, or whether we consider this mystery solved through the medium of some miraculous inner or outer enlightenment. If mysticism does not go beyond individual conviction, then, as such, it does no more harm, but if it leads to the persecution of those who think otherwise, to neglect of the duties of an active life, and, as often happens, to gross sensual sexual perversions, then it has extremely harmful practical value.

Mysticism is present in all religions of the world, philosophical teachings. The thinking of ancient man was based on the deification of the forces of nature and cooperation with them. As knowledge accumulated, people became more rational, but faith in divine guidance remained unchanged.

What does mysticism mean?

The meaning of the word mysticism comes from the ancient Greek μυστικός - mysterious - a special worldview and perception based on intuitive guesses, insights and emotions. Intuition plays an important role in the mystical way of knowing the world, its secret essence. What is not subject to logic and reason is comprehensible to irrational thinking based on feelings. Mysticism as a teaching is closely connected with philosophy and religions.

Mysticism in philosophy

Mysticism in philosophy is a trend that arose from the 19th century. in Europe. O. Spengler (German historiosophist) identified 2 reasons why people became interested in non-church ways of knowing themselves and God:

• the crisis of European culture, which has exhausted itself;
• the rapid growth of intercultural interaction between the West and the East, the Eastern worldview was to the taste of the Europeans, who were thirsty for a "new vision".

Philosophical mysticism - as a combination of traditional Christianity and Eastern spiritual traditions, is aimed at the movement of a person towards the divine and unity with the Absolute (Cosmic consciousness, Brahman, Shiva), studies the meanings that are universally significant for all people: being, right life, happiness. In Russia, philosophical mysticism developed in the 20th century. The most famous destinations:

1. Theosophy - E.A. Blavatsky.
2. Living Ethics - A.K. E i.A. Roerichs.
3. Russian mysticism (based on Zen Buddhism) - G.I. Gurdjieff.
4. Historiosophical teaching (Christian and Vedic ideas) - D.L. Andreev.
5. The mystical philosophy of Solovyov (appearance to the philosopher of the Gnostic Soul of the world - Sophia).

Jung and the psychology of mysticism

Carl Gustav Jung - a Swiss psychiatrist, one of the most controversial and interesting psychoanalysts of his time, a student of Z. Freud, the founder - discovered the concept of "collective unconscious" to the world. He is considered more of a mystic than a psychologist. K. Jung's passion for mysticism began from a young age and accompanied him throughout his entire life. It is noteworthy that the ancestors of the psychiatrist, according to him, had supernatural powers: they heard and saw spirits.

Jung differed from other psychologists in that he trusted his unconscious and was himself a researcher of it. The psychiatrist tried to find connections between the mystical and the real, in order to explain the mysterious phenomena of the psyche - he considered all this to be really knowable. Approaching the incomprehensible, God through a mystical experience (fusion) - from the point of view of C. Jung, helped a person suffering from neurosis to gain integrity and contributed to the healing of psychotrauma.

Mysticism in Buddhism

Mysticism in Buddhism manifests itself as a special worldview. Everything - from things in this world to people and even Gods - is in the Divine Foundation, and outside of it cannot exist. A person, in order to merge with the Absolute, at first, through spiritual practices, strives to experience a mystical experience, insight and realize his "I" inseparable from the Divine. According to the Buddhists, this is a kind of "lifeboat" to "swim to the other side, overcoming the current and dissolving into the void." The interaction process is based on 3 conditions:

1. overcoming sensory perception: (purification of hearing, sight, taste, smell, touch);
2. overcoming the barriers of physical existence (Buddha denied the existence of the body);
3. reaching the Divine level.

Mysticism in Christianity

Orthodox mysticism is closely connected with the person of Christ and attaches great importance to the interpretation of biblical texts. A large role is assigned to religious communities, without which it is difficult for a person to approach God. Union with Christ is the whole purpose of human existence. Christian mystics, in order to comprehend the love of God, strove for transformation (“deification”), for this, every true Christian must go through several stages:

• cleansing ("mortification" of the flesh) - fasting, abstinence, prayers at a certain time, mercy to the suffering;
• enlightenment - comprehension of the Holy Scripture and the truth hidden in natural manifestations;
• unity (contemplation) - knowledge of divine love by the heart: "God is love, whoever loves, he abides in God, and God is in him."

The attitude of the church towards Christian mysticism has always been ambiguous, especially during the time of the Holy Inquisition. A person who had a divine mystical experience could be considered a heretic if his spiritual experiences differed from the generally accepted church doctrine. For this reason, people withheld their revelations, and this stopped Christian mysticism from further development.

Mysticism as a way of knowledge

Mysticism and mysticism are concepts that are addressed by a person who is faced with the inexplicable, the beyond and who decides to start to know this world in an irrational way, relying on his feelings and intuition. The path of the mystic lies in the choice of spiritual tradition, and in the cultivation of mystical thinking:

• deep faith in tradition, system, supreme being;
• the relationship of the internal with the external, with phenomena, other people;
• self-confidence: deep personal experience is more important than what is written in books;
• presence "here and now";
• question everything;
• spiritual practices and meditations, breathing techniques are tools on the mystical path of knowledge.

Mysticism in Western Christianity

Turning to a review of the mysticism of Western Christianity, we note a number of its stylistic differences from Eastern Christianity. First, Catholic doctrine, which emphasized the exclusive role of the church in the salvation of believers, greatly narrowed the scope of individual religious experience. Therefore, the church treated the mystics without much sympathy, suspecting them of being outside the church and of trying to replace salvation in the bosom of the church with salvation through personal experience. The Catholic Church considered mystical work not as the pinnacle of Christian praxis, but as something redundant for the cause of salvation (the doctrine of the supersufficient merits of the saints was one of the foundations for the practice of selling indulgences: the church took upon itself the mission of redistributing these “excessive” merits for salvation). The "pan-church" nature of Catholicism also explains the exceptionally harsh testing of descriptions of mystical experience for orthodoxy, that is, for their compliance with the dogmatic system.

Secondly, the West has not developed such a coherent and systematized method of psychotechnics as Eastern hesychasm (categorically rejected by the Catholic Church for "naturalism"). The first attempts to systematize psychotechnical methods date back only to the 16th century. (“Spiritual Exercises” by the founder of the Jesuit order, St. Ignatius Loyola). If the Eastern Christian theory of mysticism is Christocentric (union with God is realized in Christ), then the Western one is predominantly theocentric (the emphasis is on divine unity, and not the distinction of hypostases). The idea of ​​deification (with the exception of John Scotus - John Eriugena, who knew the Greek language and was well acquainted with Eastern patristics) also did not play a significant role in mysticism, which remained within the framework of orthodoxy, which denied, especially after Thomas Aquinas, the possibility of combining the created and the uncreated. If in the East, in addition to the communal-monastic monasticism, there was a developed tradition of individual hermitage-hermitage, then in the West large monasteries and monastic orders dominated, differing from each other in charters, which was completely alien to the East.

Thirdly, in connection with the rapid and intensive development in the West of rational philosophy - scholasticism (since the 11th century), a unique and unknown to either Byzantium or the non-Christian East (with the exception, and even then relative, of the Islamic world) opposition “rational ( philosophical) - mystical (irrational)", which, however, did not cancel the historical interaction of these two forms of spiritual life (suffice it to point to the influence exerted by Meister Eckhart on the development of German philosophy). But on the whole, the gap between mysticism (especially psychotechnics proper) and philosophy was unconditional.

In Catholic mysticism, we can also distinguish two directions - contemplative-gnostic, aimed at experiencing the presence of the divine and direct communication or even unity with him, and emotional, in which unity with God is experienced as an act of mutual love between God and the soul. In the first direction, one can single out mystics who are guided by the use of sensual images for mystical ascent (visualizations of Ignatius Loyola, suggesting evoked visions of scenes from the lives of saints or the figure of Christ, which gradually fill the entire mind of the practitioner), and mystics who affirm the need for ugly contemplation (St. John or Juan of the Cross, usually incorrectly called St. Juan de la Cruz in Russian-language literature). The largest and brightest representative of emotional-love mysticism (with erotic overtones) is St. Teresa of Avila.

Standing somewhat apart is the majestic and admirable figure of St. Francis of Assisi, whose preaching of love for God is devoid of extremes of emotional exaltation. With the name of St. Francis is also associated with a peculiar practice of stigmatization, in which, as a result of the intense concentration of the believer on the Passion of the Lord, bleeding, but painless ulcers appear in him, similar to the wounds of Christ on the cross. This phenomenon is very interesting for studying the problem of psychosomatic mutual influence.

Of the unorthodox (recognized as heretics) Western mystics, the most striking and profound representative of the contemplative-gnostic trend is undoubtedly the German mystic of the 14th century. Meister Eckhart.

St. John of the Cross speaks primarily of the fundamental indescribability of mystical experience, which he calls "dark contemplation." He notes that it is difficult to describe even a sensual object seen for the first time, let alone the experience of experiencing the supersensible:

The soul then feels as if immersed in a boundless, bottomless solitude, which no living creature can break, feels itself in a boundless desert, which seems to it the more delightful the more deserted it is. There, in this abyss of wisdom, the soul grows, drawing its strength from the primary source of the knowledge of love ... And there it learns that no matter how exalted and refined our language, it becomes pale, flat, empty, as soon as we begin to use it to describe divine things. (James W. Diversity of Religious Experience. M., 1993. S. 317–318.)

St. Teresa of Avila, despite a somewhat different type of mysticism compared to St. John of the Cross, fully agrees with him on the issue of the indescribability and inexpressibility of mystical experience. Unity with God brings the soul into a state of insensibility and unconsciousness. Nevertheless, the mystical experience has the highest and ultimate certainty for the survivor, being, as it were, a criterion of himself. St. Teresa asserts that it is impossible for the one who has experienced union with God to doubt it. Any doubts testify to the inauthenticity of unity or its absence. Moreover, after experiencing the unio mystica, according to St. Teresa, even an uneducated person begins to understand deep theological truths, and more deeply than many ordinary theologians; she gives the example of a woman who experienced the divine omnipresence so deeply that poorly educated theologians, who spoke of the presence of God in people only through “grace”, could not shake her conviction. The most educated theologians, however, have confirmed the truth (corresponding to Catholic orthodoxy) of the experience and understanding of this woman.

This is a very interesting example, confirmed by the experience of J. Boehme, a simple shoemaker who, thanks to a transpersonal (mystical) experience, became a deep philosopher (unfortunately, understanding the meaning of Boehme's teaching is very difficult due to inadequate forms of his expression and descriptive language), whose influence can be traced back to Schelling, Schopenhauer and Berdyaev.

Ignatius Loyola also speaks of this, arguing that in the course of prayerful contemplation he comprehended more divine mysteries than in the entire time he studied theological books and philosophical treatises.

Here is another saying of St. Teresa, which develops the theme of mystical gnosis and at the same time touches on the experience of divine unity, so characteristic of transpersonal experience:

“Once while I was praying, I had the opportunity to immediately comprehend how all things can be contemplated in God and contained in Him. I saw them not in their usual form, but with amazing clarity, and their sight remained vividly imprinted on my soul. This is one of the most outstanding graces bestowed on me by God ... This view was so refined and gentle that it is impossible to describe it. (James W. op. cit. p. 320.)

But if St. Teresa, like St. John of the Cross, and speaks of gnosis, yet the main thing for her is emotional uplift, almost sensual exaltation and all-encompassing, up to eroticism, love for God - a phenomenon that is well known to us from Indian bhakti.

Speaking of Western mysticism, one should especially dwell on Meister Eckhart and his tradition - Suso, Ruisbroek the Amazing, Angelus (Angel) Silesian (Silesius, Silesius), - about which we will specifically say a few words.

The whole philosophy of Meister Eckhart (1260-1327) is not so much the fruit of his intellectual developments, although he was well educated scholastically, but the rationalization of his transpersonal experience, as Eckhart himself constantly points out; indeed, the purpose of this philosophy, clothed in the form of sermons, is to provoke people to contemplation, leading to the experience of divine unity.

Eckhart distinguishes between the essence of God (Deity) and his nature - God's self-contemplating and contemplated creation. The relationship between the Deity and God is approximately the same as between Brahman and Ishvara in Advaita Vedanta or between the essence of God and its manifestation to itself in the teachings of the Sufi Ibn al-Arabi:

And meanwhile, it was she, in her being of a creature, who created God - He did not exist before the soul became a creature. I used to say: I am the reason that God is "God", God exists through the soul, but the Deity is He through Himself. Until there were creations, and God was not God; but undoubtedly he was a Deity, since He does not have this through the soul. When God finds an annihilated soul, one that has become (by the power of grace) nothing, since it is selfishness and self-will, then God creates in it (without any grace) His eternal work, and thus, raising it, extracts it from its created being. But in this way God destroys Himself in the soul, and thus there is no more "God" or "Soul". Be sure - this is the most essential attribute of God! (Meister Eckhart. Spiritual sermons and reasoning. M., 1991. S. 138–139.)

Meister Eckhart here claims that the Deity (Absolute), which he also calls Nothing, Gloom, Abyss, becomes a personal and triune God only in relation to something else, his own creation, or rather, the soul. But the soul must, in contemplation, remove this duality, surpass itself, its individual limitations (the nature of the soul is “self-will and self-will”) and return to the divine essence (more precisely, super-essence), in which duality will disappear, and God will cease to be God, and the soul - soul. But at the same time, this unity is higher than the original one - "my mouth is more beautiful than the source," says Eckhart. He affirms, in essence, the complete deification of the soul, although he does not use this word: “Renounce completely from yours, pour yourself into the silence of His Essence; as it was before. He is there, you are here, then we will close into a single WE, where you are from now on He is. With eternal reason you will know Him, the inexpressible nothingness, as the eternal “I am.” I would like to draw the reader's attention to the fact that Eckhart's "you are now He" sounds almost like the "great saying" of the Upanishads: "tat tvam asi" ("you are that").

This is how Eckhart describes the stages of the contemplative ascent of the soul to the Divine. First, man must "turn away from himself and all created things." After that, a person finds unity and bliss in the transcendental basis of his soul - that part of it, "which has never been touched by either time or space." Light symbolism appears here: Eckhart compares this basis of the soul with a spark that strives only for God, turning away from all creation. She is attracted only to the Divine, and she will not be satisfied with any of the hypostases of the Trinity. Even the birth of divine nature in it is not enough for this light of the soul. But this light is not satisfied with the simple divine essence either:

“He wants to know where this essence comes from, he wants to go into the very depths, one, into a quiet desert, where nothing isolated has ever penetrated, neither the Father, nor the Son, nor the Holy Spirit; in the depths of the depths, where everyone is a stranger, only there is this light satisfied, and there it is more in itself than in itself. For this depth is one undivided silence, which rests immovably in itself. And all things are moved by this immovable. (Ibid., pp. 38–39.)

To substantiate his teaching, Meister Eckhart often refers to Dionysius the Areopagite, but the apophaticism of the German mystic is even more radical than his Byzantine source.

As mentioned above, the ideas of Meister Eckhart had a very significant influence on the development of German thought and the philosophical tradition of Germany. Gradually, a special style of theology was formed, based on apophaticism and the doctrine of the complete unity of the soul and God, more precisely, about the coincidence at some starting point of the existence of the soul, the world and God (the idea that formed the basis of Schelling's philosophy of identity); this style was called "theologia teutonica" - "German theology"; it was radically different from the orthodox Peripatetic-Thomistic Catholic theology of both the pre-Trident and post-Trident period.

The idea of ​​pure unity with God was defended by the followers and successors of Eckhart, who lived between the 14th and 17th centuries: John Tauler, Ruisbrook the Amazing, Suso, Silesius the Angel. Here are some quotes from their creations:

1. Here the spirit dies, and the deceased still continues to live in the brilliance of the deity ... He is lost in the silence of darkness, which has become dazzlingly beautiful, lost in pure unity. In this formless "where" lies supreme bliss. (Suso, quoted in James W. op. cit. p. 327.)

2. I am as great as God,

He is as small as me.

I can't be lower than him

He cannot be taller than me.

(Angel Silesius, real name - Johann Shefler, XVI-XVII centuries - See ibid. P. 327.)

With these quotations we shall conclude our necessarily highly incomplete and fragmentary survey of Western European Catholic mysticism. As for mysticism in Protestantism, there is practically no developed system of any psychotechnics and transpersonal experiences are usually sporadic (W. James sees an exception in the methods of supporters of "spiritual treatment" that appeared at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries).

Usually, mystical experiences in Protestantism are associated with the idea of ​​being chosen, called, and receiving grace. Even Oliver Cromwell had an experience of receiving grace, who, on his deathbed, begged the presbyters to answer him whether grace could be taken away from him because of his bloody deeds (to calm the Lord Protector, the presbyters answered that grace was not taken away). In addition, Protestantism knew various forms of quietism (a lot of material on the religious experience of Protestantism, especially on the Anglo-American material, is contained in the book of W. James) and elements of ecstatic experiences - among Quakers, Pentecostals (who believe in the possibility of acquiring the Holy Spirit by every person in personal experience), Pentecostal Catholics, and some other sects. However, we will talk about sectarian mysticism using the example of traditional Russian sects.

Because of the varied forms in which mysticism appears in the history of religion, as well as the contradictory elements that make up its composition, it does not have one universally recognized definition. Real mysticism, reflecting the direct experience and connection of a person with the Divine principle, differs from a dubious inclination towards mysticism and from non-canonical beliefs and techniques.

There is a peculiar connection between mysticism and religion: a mixture of respect and mistrust. Usually a true believer also has mystical abilities, and a mystic, shocked by the direct experience of a Saint, is a deeply religious person. Despite this, one should not associate religiosity as such with mysticism. Religion is a much broader phenomenon. In addition, there are non-religious forms of mysticism.

There is no generally accepted definition of mysticism. William R. Inge (1889) identifies the following features: first, inner knowledge; secondly, peace; third, introspection; fourthly, contempt and neglect of material goods. Researchers of the 20th century usually based on the properties of mysticism, highlighted by W. James (1902): 1. Inexplicability (“ineffability”); 2. Abstract ("noetic") character, for mystical experience is aimed at a single comprehension of the Universe, obviously related to the abstract sphere; 3. Passivity ("passivity"); 4. Variability ("transiency"). Finally, L. Duprey (1987) proposed instead of variability to use the concept of periodicity (“rythmic”), since this experience returns with a certain periodicity. He also added a fifth point - integration ("integration"), specifying that the mystical consciousness manages to overcome various opposites and in an intuitive way to unite them.

It has been repeatedly stated that different forms of mysticism have a common denominator. However, no matter how we become convinced of the general features of the mystical experience of various religions, the differences between them, the special coloring of each of them, remain significant. Each mystical experience retains something special, something of its own.

Within the boundaries of religious mysticism, two currents are clearly distinguished: the first, which in general can be called a monistic or “near-monistic” direction (Neoplatonism, Hindu Advaita, Taoism), and the second, theistic, developed in prophetic religions. In the first, the peak of the mystical experience is the complete disappearance of the human "I" in the absolute beginning or the Divine Spirit. In the second, the human personality is elevated and preserved in union with God. In accordance with the degree of participation of the mystic in the process of his return to God, there are active, theoretical and hesychast mysticism.

Non-religious types of mysticism include:

1. Theoretical and intellectual forms of mysticism, engaged in the search for a single absolute. And here moderate and extreme, turned outward and inward, theistic and non-theistic subtypes were formed.

2. Forms of initiation that emphasize the emotional component and seek to reach the Absolute through love.

3. Ecstatic and erotic forms that contribute to the emergence of erotic feelings and ecstasy. Often the last two forms coexist.

Mystical experience often develops in the human mind a sense of universality and oneness with all people. Generally, the most spiritual forms of mysticism are dominated by peaceful, unifying sentiments. Mystical insights enliven religious experience, critically evaluate and overcome traditional religious structures, at times question and undermine ordinary external religiosity, often, however, falling into dangerous extremes.

The beginnings of mysticism in primitive society

The certainty that a person can enter into communication with some higher power, approach it, go beyond his body, unite with a certain deity, we already meet at the primitive stages of the development of religion and primitive society. Phenomena similar to mysticism are present in shamanism that existed among the peoples of North Asia, Europe and America, as well as in the religious rites of the natives of Australia and America and in the cults of the spirits of various African peoples. As an element of mysticism in shamanism, confidence in the presence of God in the shaman can be regarded, the belief that in a state of ecstasy his soul leaves the body in order to unite with God or, at least, stay near him.

In addition, the state of ecstasy, in which a person does not perceive external stimuli and experiences an extraordinary spiritual experience, already known from the cult of Dionysus, is present in many indigenous beliefs in Africa and America. This state in primitive society is achieved in various ways: with the help of narcotic substances, a state of severe exhaustion, deafening music, dance orgies. In particular, the cult dance orchesis enhances psychosomatic forces so that a person receives transcendental energy or connects with a higher spirit. The prerequisite for the state of ecstasy is usually the belief that a person can be transformed and united with God. The question of how these phenomena can be included in religious mysticism remains debatable. In any case, they can be considered the initial stages, prerequisites or rudiments of mysticism, indicating a person's desire for a transcendental mystical experience.

Greek mysticism

Greek mysticism initially developed in the philosophical direction of the teachings of the pre-Socratic philosophers "about the one and the universal" and in the general religious climate created by the Dionysian cult and the Orphean mysteries, which were of an ecstatic character. Participants in the mysteries of Dionysius believed that they become "deified", while the Orpheans sought to return through ecstasy to the divine essence. Greek philosophical thought ennobled the archaic acts of merging with God in the Greek mysteries and, in place of the ancient rites, cultivated ecstasy, caused mainly by mental activity.

The Greeks also laid the foundations of monism and pantheism, developing the doctrine that the world comes from a certain Origin, to which it returns. This idea was associated with the perception of the eternal circulation of all beings, as well as the theory of metempsychosis - the transmigration of souls. Plato (428/427 - 348/347 BC) significantly enriched Greek philosophical mysticism with his theory "of ideas", while the Stoics developed the pantheistic philosophy of the Logos.

However, the most significant mystical system, combining elements of Platonic, Aristotelian, Pythagorean and Stoic philosophy, and, apparently, supplementing this mixture with ideas from the Jewish hermeneutical tradition, arose within the framework of Neoplatonism. Neoplatonism arose as a universal philosophical system, spiritually uplifting and intellectually stable. Ammonius Saccas (175-242) is considered its founder, but the main theoretical postulates of the doctrine were developed by Plotinus (206-269), who lived and taught in Rome.

Further development of the doctrine is associated with the names of Porphyry (232-303), Iamblichus (250-330) in Syria and Proclus (411-485) in Athens. From the point of view of Neoplatonism, the beginning and source of the world is the One, First, Eternal, Higher, Good, identified with God. The world originated from the One through an emanation consisting of successive phases. As a result of the first emanation, the mind appears, consisting of ideas corresponding to the ideal world of Plato, the second - the universal soul, the third - individual souls, and, finally, the last - matter, most remote from the One. In the philosophy of Plotinus, each emanation from the One reflects the previous phase as its image. This means something more than an external copy - each level of reality is involved in the depths of its essence with a higher level and must return back to it. With this metaphysics, and above all, with the theory of emanation, neoplatonic mysticism is connected.

The human soul must overcome sensual and material boundaries and merge with the One, with the Absolute. Final merging with it is achieved by ascetic purification and ecstasy, leading to a mystical theory of the Divine. Plotinian fusion with the One has been called ecstatic, but, above all, it is penetrating (penetration into oneself). Plotinus included in his system the four main virtues of Platonic ethics: wisdom, courage, sanity (moderation) and justice - only as prerequisites. What he pursues as his highest goal, Bliss and Good, is the mystical fusion of the soul with God. Connection with the One, according to the Neoplatonists, can be realized already during the earthly human life. Plotinus and Porfiry claimed that they were able to achieve this. In general, the Neoplatonic teaching seems rather dry, without emotions and visions. Neoplatonism was a major opponent of Christianity, and in the process of this opposition, some ideas were transformed by Christian mystics.

Chinese mysticism

One of the most ancient mystical systems arose and formed in China. Its theoretical basis is the ancient philosophical axioms of Lao Tzu and the aphorisms of Zhuang Tzu poetry. The main sacred book of Taoism "Tao Te Ching", the author of which is considered to be Lao-tzu (VI century BC), is sustained in line with ascetic ethics with a clearly expressed mystical bias. The highest reality - Tao - is defined with the help of opposite characteristics and apophatic language. Tao is invisible, incomprehensible, formless, perfect, unchangeable, nameless, fills everything and is the beginning of everything. It existed from eternity, to the earth and to the sky. This is the beginning of the universe. So, we have a monistic theory that reveals the absolute unity in the universe.

The cosmogonic concept of Taoism is as follows: from Tao, first of all, the One came, that is, the great Unit, and from it - two primary essences: "yang" and "yin" - positive and negative, representing and embracing all the main opposites: light - shadow, male - female, etc. Then they gave birth to heaven, earth, man, all creation originates from them. Tao is not only the absolute beginning of any being, but at the same time maintains all natural phenomena in harmony. His energy is necessary and involuntary. It is the highest goal of man. A person should strive to overcome himself in the Tao. The main means of achieving such harmony are peace, renunciation of passions, a return to primitive simplicity.

The basic idea offered by Taoism - the famous "Wu-wei" - can be reduced to the motto "do nothing" or "do everything without doing anything." In order for a person to be able to merge with the Tao and be in harmony with the outside world, the Taoist tradition developed a mystical practice, the first stage of which was purification, the second stage was illumination, when virtue does not require more conscious effort, but arises involuntarily, and the third stage is internal unity. All people are potentially capable of moving along the path to the Tao. Taoism proclaimed a contemptuous attitude to wealth, to carnal pleasures, to the accumulation of knowledge and formed a way of thinking diametrically opposed to classical Confucianism.

Later, Taoism degenerated into a system of magic, alchemy, and secret mystical rites. The works of Tao-Ling (1st or 2nd century A.D.) gave Taoism a clear external organization: many monasteries, both male and female, were founded, which had much in common with Buddhist ones, as well as temples that housed all kinds of images of different deities. Regardless of such a development, Chinese mysticism in its basic principles has much in common with Neoplatonism, with which it converges not only on the issue of a finite unity, inaccessible to knowledge and capable of being comprehended only with the help of intuition, spiritual tension and ecstasy, but also in views on that the absolute beginning cannot be identified either with the whole material world or with its part.

Indians throughout their history have been distinguished by a penchant for mysticism. Hinduism is permeated with a tendency to mystical immersion in oneself not only in philosophical and metaphysical ideas, but also in religious rites close to shamanism and magic. The search for the primary Beginning already appears in some texts of the Rig Veda (for example, in the Hymn to Creation). The importance attached to the sacrifice is indicated by the origin of the word Brahman, which originally meant the sacred power present at the sacrifice, and then came to be used to designate the Absolute.

Above all, however, the Upanishads brought together the scattered treasures of Hindu logical mysticism and laid down an inexhaustible spring that watered it for all subsequent centuries. They argued that Brahman encompasses everything - that which exists and that which does not exist, and that it is contained in everything and over everything and cannot be defined, it is the highest, impersonal Beginning. Simultaneously with the concept of Brahman, the doctrine of Atman, which is an invisible part of human nature, developed. At the next stage, Indian thought will identify the One and Unique, Brahman with Atman. The connection of the universal world soul with the individual soul of each person is similar to the connection that was later described by Plotinus.

From the Upanishads originates one of the most characteristic forms of mysticism, in many ways consonant with pantheistic monism. It is the philosophical successor of Vedanta, one of the six orthodox philosophical and religious systems of Hinduism, especially its current called Advaita. The “non-dualistic” school of Advaita Vedanta (“Advaita Vedanta”) received its philosophical formulation, as we saw mainly in the writings of Shankar (788-820), who postulated the unreality of the world, the non-dual nature of Brahman and the absence of differences between Atman and Brahman .

According to this theory, there is only one stable reality - Brahman, which is immanently present in man as Atman. Atman cannot be identified with what the Greeks called "psyches" - the soul. This is the stable and unchanging thing that remains if we take away what we think, want, feel. Through the insight and awareness acquired as a result of mystical experience, a person manages to realize his identity with the highest Brahman, proclaiming “you are that” (“tat tvam asi”), that is, your spirit is one with everything, you are everything. The disappearance of the personality as such and the merging of the individual Atman with Brahman are perceived as salvation. The spiritual essence of a person, a drop in the ocean, returns after various transformations and reincarnations, after the ups and downs of samsara - the cycle of births and deaths in the world - to its highest and absolute beginning. Progress on this mystical path requires training, renunciation of desires and, above all, knowledge acquired by intense meditative absorption.

Another type of mysticism that developed in India was associated with dualism and was based philosophically on another orthodox Hindu school called Sankhya. According to the teachings of this school, there are two different beginnings: "pra-kriti" - the material principle, a source of energy, and "purusha" - separate spiritual beings. They can and must be liberated from matter by attempting to plunge into themselves, in mystical self-isolation. This mysticism does not lead to merging with a higher being and thus does not resemble pantheistic monism, but, on the contrary, leads to absolute individualism.

The third branch of Hindu mysticism has a pronounced theistic character. Its sources can be found in the famous mystical poem Bhagavad Gita. Here the story of Krishna assumes an unequivocal theistic position. The doctrine offers a synthesis of a theoretical and active life position, thereby uniting monism and theistic current. It calls for spiritual discipline, peace, renunciation of passions, and claims that with the help of all this, even the most active person will be able to discover the presence of the eternal in all objects. This poem, which culminates in the vision and theophany of Krishna, concludes with the advice to seek God by devotion to him, and not by self-absorption. Thus bhakti, the path of devotional service to the personal form of the deity, is extolled.

This type of "love" mysticism received a philosophical justification, first of all, in the writings of Ramanuja (1017-1137) and other representatives of the school he founded. According to his teaching, there are three absolute principles: God, souls and matter, and God is the only independent reality of both soul and matter. In place of the impersonal Absolute, Ramunaja once again placed the traditional idea of ​​a personal God helping the soul on the path to salvation, and instead of a cold mental metaphysical search, he speaks in favor of devotional service to God in everyday life.

From this fertile philosophical soil drew fresh juices and erotic mysticism, the flowering of which in India is associated with the tradition of devotional service to God ("bhakti"). The Hindu emotional type of mysticism reached a truly hysterical intensity and exaltation in the mysticism of Chaitanya (1486-1534) and his followers, as well as the cult of sensuality of some other Hindu heresies. The religious doctrine of bhakti flourished in the second millennium and continues to influence the spiritual life of India to this day.

Buddhist Mysticism

Since mysticism is a direct intuitive connection with the Absolute, it could be argued, consistently adhering to this strict definition, that there is no Buddhist mysticism, for the existence of the Absolute is not allowed in the classical forms of this religion. Unlike prophetic religions, the content of which is expressed in verbal form, Buddhism, as a religion of silence, denies all ways of naming the Absolute, but in the depths it leaves open the possibility of the existence of an inexpressible Absolute identified with emptiness. Offering the concept of "Anatman" - "Anatta" ("non-self"), Buddhism makes the achievement of nirvana its ideal. Thus, by denying the existence of a real positive Absolute, it admits the existence of an absolute goal.

Buddhist immersion in the void and dissolution in it can be seen as a kind of mystical experience, corresponding to merging with the One in Hindu Advaita or Neoplatonism. Indicative, moreover, is the fact that the ultimate goal of Buddhism - nirvana - is described, no doubt, in an apophatic way, but using mystical phrases borrowed from Hinduism. Finally, in religious rites in which the Buddhist gives thanks to the unnamed source of all love and goodness, he silently and subconsciously, without admitting it to himself, begins to believe in the existence of some good Absolute.

In accordance with the special theoretical concepts that emerged in the three currents of Buddhism, the tendency to mysticism also developed. During the Hinayana, its characteristics are less pronounced, but they manifest themselves in the last three stages of the path of self-improvement regulated in the eight vaults, associated with meditation, with intense mental concentration and with immersion in oneself ("samadhi" - "samadhi"), which in turn is achieved eight other consecutive types of mental exercises ("dhyana" - "dhyana"). Ultimately, we are talking about beliefs that turn to some kind of mystical experience. On this path, the Buddhist, by his own efforts, achieves knowledge, insight, nirvana.

Mahayana Buddhism opened up new horizons for this mystical experience, leading to infinite goodness. The doctrine of absolute emptiness (“sunyata” - “sunyata”), which received a philosophical justification in the writings of Nagarjuna (end of the 2nd century after R.H.) and further developed by the Madhyamaka school, surpasses all then-existing ideas regarding the concepts of being and non-being. It has a clear sotiriological orientation and aims to completely destroy the possibility of desire and lead to absolute emptiness. And if the idea of ​​emptiness appears among Hinayana schools as the main quality of the ultimate goal of nirvana, in Mahayana the emphasis on emptiness extends to the preparatory stages. For absolute reality is empty, free from all distinctions, completely indeterminate. Liberation from the illusions generated by the world is achieved by the destruction of any individual feature, desire, as well as knowledge, which in this case does not mean the achievement of scientific progress and the acquisition of knowledge, but something almost the opposite - knowledge achieved by intense mystical silence.

Within the boundaries of Buddhism of the Mahayana type, the tendencies of a certain type of initiatory mysticism, such as Amidaism, in many respects reminiscent of the religious teachings of Bakti Hinduism, also developed. Amid's followers seek salvation by giving their thoughts to the heavenly Buddha. On the contrary, in another direction of Buddhism - Zen, consistent in its search for emptiness, persistent dialogism has developed, training the mind to go beyond logical thinking to direct experience and insight. However, such immersion in emptiness, as it appears in Zen Buddhism, does not lead to renunciation of the current life, but entails the ability to cope with any difficulties in this life, being free from passions and attachments. However, all forms of Zen in Buddhism, as well as all forms of yoga in Indian religious teachings, as well as austerities in Neoplatonism, are not exclusively mystical.

Tibet, the Potala palace complex.

Vajrayana Buddhism, also called Inner Buddhism, which appeared in Tibet, developed complex occult procedures and mystical cults. Especially for the attainment of insight, a complex system of mystical knowledge, intense meditation, yoga exercises, erotic symbols, and especially ecstasy with secret sides and psychosomatic stimuli have been developed. In general, within the framework of various confused directions and teachings that existed in Buddhism, the possibility of direct contact with the Unspeakable was proclaimed and the paths, mystical in nature, leading to merging with it, to absolute silence and to nirvana were methodically determined.

Jewish mysticism

Judaism has given rise to various forms of mysticism, some of which have developed deep dialogic systems, while others have developed sensual forms of mystical experience, but, in general, Jewish mysticism is characterized by its pronounced eschatological orientation. Already from the 1st c. after R.Kh. many elements of Greek philosophical mysticism were introduced into Jewish thought, with an allegorical interpretation developed by Philo of Alexandria (about 15/10 BC - 50 AD).

The central idea of ​​the initial phase of Jewish mysticism - the Merkava ("Merkavah") - was the vision of the prophet Ezekiel of the "Divine chariot-throne". The doctrine originated in the 1st century. after A.D., having adopted a system of spiritual exercises leading to a vision of the glory of God sitting on the heavenly throne. This form of mysticism shows the influence of Gnostic ideas associated with the "pleroma", as well as the Hellenistic combination of magic and mysticism. This type, also called Southern Judaism, emphasized theoretical thought and meditation. The doctrine fell into decline after the 7th century, but received a kind of revival in Italy in the 9th and 10th centuries.

Vision of the prophet Ezekiel. (Raphael)

Medieval Hasidism, in other words, the teachings of the pious (“Hasid” means “pious”), often called northern Judaism, originated in the 12th century. in Germany as a popular movement closely associated with the law ("halaka"). It is characterized by a pronounced eschatological mood, which becomes more and more intense as the teaching develops, an emphasis on simplicity, renunciation of passions, spiritual values, prayer, spiritual asceticism and immersion in divine love. Hasidic theological thought, which has many similarities with Neoplatonism, developed at a logical level the concept of the glory of God ("ka-voz"), emphasizing that glory is distinct from the essence, kingdom, and hidden presence of God.

The most significant mystical current was the Kabbalah (“qabbala”), which originated in Spain in the 13th century. as a special esoteric teaching, and then, when the Jews were expelled from there (1392), spread to all parts of the Jewish world. The Kabbalistic theoretical system was influenced by theological and cosmological concepts of the Gnostic type, while at the same time assuming the ideas of Neoplatonism that penetrated the Jewish and Arab cultures of Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries.

The main kabbalistic book, the Zohar (Book of Illumination), written in Spain in an attempt to contain rationalist tendencies, has given traditional Judaism an arcane mystical energy. The center of her teaching is the theory of 10 "Sephiroth" existing between the eternal God and his creations, that is, about 10 zones into which the divine emanation spreads. The pleroma of these Sephiroth does not come from God, but abides in God. The Zohar emphasized ritual symbolism, interpreting sacred rites as mystical points of contact between God and people, and generally contributed to the strengthening of Jewish self-awareness, going as far as asserting that a Jew has a more perfect soul compared to a non-Jew.

In addition, within the framework of Kabbalah, a more prophetic trend was formed with the main representative Abraham ben Samuel Abulafia (1240-1291), who, having adopted many ideas from the philosophical theories of Maimonides (1135/8-1204), developed the doctrine of how help the soul break the bonds that hold it in the world of diversity, and facilitate its return to the original unity. To achieve this goal, it is especially recommended to resort to mystical contemplation or to the theory of an abstract subject, for example, the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The elevation of consciousness to the heights on which unity with God takes place gives a person prophetic abilities as well.

Moshe ben Maimon (Maimonides)

In the XVI century. in Palestine, a few Jewish mystics expelled from Spain gave the Kabbalah a messianic eschatological focus. In one of the teachings of this school, the most significant representative of which was Isaac Luria (1534-1572), it is emphasized that by prayer and, in general, by a pious life, the mystic is able to make a significant contribution to the restoration of the original order of the universe.

In the XVIII century. in Poland, a new kind of Hasidism appeared, with more emphasis on emotion rather than logic, which was more of a renovationist movement than a new school. Its founders were Besht (Israel ben Eliezer, 1700-1760) and his student Dov-Ber. The teaching was in many respects the successor to the mystical piety of the Kabbalah, while at the same time rejecting its messianic excesses. It became more practical and close to life, emphasizing the importance of a moral life and the spiritual joy that comes from mystical inner experience. In contrast to the intellectual currents of the rabbinical elite of Ukraine and southern Poland, this teaching elevated the importance of a simple Jew. Based on the Kabbalistic teaching about divine emanations in the process of creation, the teaching placed more emphasis on the inner state of a person, on his devotion to God, and not on logical processing and awareness of tradition. Gradually, Hasidism, retaining its special face and continuing to form autonomous communities, moved away from Kabbalistic influence and entered Orthodox Judaism (“Ashkenazi”) of the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe. After World War II, Hasidic communities emigrated to America.

Besht (Israel ben Eliezer)

Thus, despite its diversity and external influences to which it was subjected from time to time, Jewish mysticism retained its dynamic integrity, which was based on the Old Testament, the leading role of the word and eschatological expectation.

Islamic Mysticism - Sufism

The goal and aspiration of the Spanish mystics - Sufis - were to overcome individuality, to renounce one's "I", to fully dedicate oneself to Allah, and to emphasize the love of God. The first Sufis (sufi) were the heirs of the ascetic and spiritual tradition of Christian desert hermits. The "suf" woolen garment, from which their name probably derives, reminds us of this influence. Islamic mysticism, for the most part, can be called erotic. Many Sufi texts have not only a striking similarity in spirit, but also textual coincidences with the creations of contemporary mystics of Western Christianity.

During the first period of Sufism, manifestations of Divine love - eros - were of a moderate nature and were in harmony with the general atmosphere of the Qur'an and hadith. Later, a special intensity and passion appeared in them. At this initial stage of erotic mysticism, the noble figure of Rabiya al Adawiyah (d. 801) stands out. Erotically devoted to God, she is indifferent to any material values, worries and fears. Her famous prayer is on a par with the most beautiful prayers of the mystics: “If I worship You out of fear of hell, burn me in hell. If I worship You in the hope of Paradise, do not let me into Paradise. But if I worship You for Your own sake, do not deprive me of Your eternal beauty!

The categories of Neoplatonism, accepted by many representatives of Sufism, not only provided a theoretical basis for the mystical movement that existed within the framework of Islam, but also contributed to the emergence in its bosom of a special form of monism. The views of Plotinus were taken up by al-Junayd (d. 910), who, distinguished by talent and foresight, did not go beyond the boundaries of orthodox Islam. In this world, according to his teaching, the mystic, being in the higher realms and in unity with God, is full of joy. In the writings of Junayd, the mystical theology of Sufism reached a state of maturity and systematic unity.

Al-Khalai (d. 922) went beyond the established framework of Islamic religiosity in an ecstatic outburst based on his own life experience. Proceeding from the conviction that God is love, and that he created man in His own image, he emphasized that man must discover the image of God in himself and achieve merging with God. Some of his ideas, such as the words "I am the truth" (which probably describe a temporary sense of identification with God, bestowed from above), provoked the outrage of orthodox Muslims, who sentenced him to crucifixion. After this verdict, the Sufis became more careful in their wording and more restrained in their statements. Erotic terminology became their main means of expression. With the help of a series of exercises that lead to a state of ecstasy, this love reaches such a degree of confidence in union with God that Muslim mystics strive to dissolve themselves in Divine love.

Ascetic Muslims for the most part showed respect for the basic principles of Islam. However, some extremist statements and actions of the Sufis caused a distrustful attitude of representatives of traditional Islam. The contradictions between them to the X century. escalated into a tense confrontation. Al-Jahiz (d. 1111) succeeded in bridging the gap between Sunni Islam and Sufism. In search of the Absolute, carried out through asceticism and mystical experience, he came to the conclusion that it cannot be comprehended with the help of theoretical activity, but can only be experienced through personal transformation and ecstasy. He placed personal experience above the letter of the law and founded Islamic orthodox mysticism, restoring the fear of God to the center of Islamic piety and harmonizing theology and mystical experience.

Among the most revered books of the Sufis are the couplets of Jalaladdin al-Rumi (d. 1273). The dervishes consider this book sacred and place it next to the Koran. The texts contained in it, full of images and vivid ideas, beautifully expressed in poetic form, determined the subsequent path of Islamic mysticism.

The growing influence of Neoplatonism and monistic tendencies is associated with the name of Ibn Arabi (d. 1240). Al-Arabi, who, along with al-Ghazali, is considered the most philosophic of the Sufis, did not abandon the figurative erotic language and tried to supplement his Neoplatonic vision of God with the Qur'anic teaching about man and God. God always transcends creation, but through the mediation of man, the created world returns to its original unity. The teachings of al-Arabi testify to indifference to dogmas and a penchant for pantheistic ideas.

The ostentatious piety of the powerful of this world was opposed by the Sufis with a personal silent, often amazing example. After the 12th century the mystical movement of the Sufis led to the creation of Muslim monastic communities ("Tariqa"). Many, in search of mystical experience, turned to one of the elders, who supervised their training, the main purpose of which was not the assimilation of knowledge, but spiritual and spiritual development. To carry out this activity, the need arose for organized communities, each of which created its own centers for the residence of members, its charters, principles, ceremonies, its secrets, its spiritual atmosphere. This does not mean that all members of these communities can be considered mystics.

Dancing dervish

Nevertheless, in the atmosphere created, they persistently and purposefully developed mystical experience. One of the best-known examples is the dervishes who, through ritual dances and other means, tried to achieve ecstasy in order to get closer to God. As dervish orders appear in different areas, the mystical attitude and way of life penetrates into all layers of the Islamic world, and the search for mystical exaltations and visions assumes considerable proportions. And today there is a new surge of interest in Sufism.

Christian mysticism

general characteristics

Christianity does not identify the concept of holiness and its ideal with the achievement of mystical exaltation. However, the very fact of the incarnation of the Word of God makes ontologically and realistically possible participation and union of man with impregnable God. The roots of Christian mysticism lie in the New Testament, primarily in the texts of the Evangelist John and the Apostle Paul. Christian experience has always had Holy Scripture as its source, driving force and criterion. From Johannine theology originate the main currents of Christian mysticism: the mysticism of the "image" of God, striving for the "likeness", and the mysticism of love. Christ Himself, emphasizing the fact that "I am in the Father and the Father in Me" (John 14:11), indicated to his disciples: "abide in me and I in you" and "who abides in me and I in him » (John 15:4-5). He pointed out to his contemporaries that the path to this union in love is not a sensual and, moreover, a pseudo-mystical departure, but an agreement with His life. Many New Testament passages testify to the necessity and significance of being in Christ. In the Epistles of the Apostle Paul, a mystical experience is poured, consistent with the statement “and it is no longer I who live, but Christ lives in me” (Gal. 2:20).

The disciple of John, Ignatius the God-bearer (+113/4), sets out a deep mystical experience, reporting in the Epistle to the Romans: "My love was crucified." The first attempt at a theoretical systematization of Christian mysticism was made by Origen (185-254), who developed the theological concept of the image of God in man. The emphasis on the ontological character of this image (which is not a simple copy) will continue throughout the Christian tradition and will invariably give it its mystical power. Despite the fact that Origen considered theoretical thought and reason to be the highest degree of spiritual perfection, his theology differs from the Neoplatonic one in the special role that was given to love. In addition, he was the first to speak of Divine Eros: "The soul is the bride betrothed to the Logos."

Saint Ignatius the God-bearer

As the centuries passed, Christian mysticism took on various forms, the most significant of which are: 1. The theory of hesychasm (the hesychasm of the Eastern Church); 2. Sensual erotic service centered on the figure of Jesus Christ (various mystics of the Roman Catholic Church); 3. Systematic meditation and contemplation ("contemplation"), putting deep prayer in the first place (Carmelites, Ignatians, etc.); 4. Worship, in which the liturgical and mystical life become the means of the ascent of the soul and its union with God. In many cases, one of the traits predominates, with the presence of all the others; however, often mixed types also arise.

The question of the influence of Neoplatonic mysticism on Christian mysticism periodically arises. However, there are significant differences between them, including the following: 1. The Christian Church affirms, and the mysticism that exists within its framework, unconditionally adheres to the dogma that the world, souls, matter are God's creations, and not God's emanations; 2. Christian mysticism unreservedly denies the idea of ​​the fusion of the human soul with God in the pantheistic sense; 3. Mysticism is viewed not as a union with the essence of God, but as a vision of the glory of God, as a unity in love, as participation in the uncreated energies of God, through which a person achieves “deification”, becomes “God by grace”; 4. Whereas in Neoplatonic mysticism the emphasis is on the union of the soul with the absolute One, mainly through ascetic purification and ecstasy, Christianity is dominated by the notion that since God is love, the only true way to unite man with God is love. The mystical Christian current flows from the sources of God's revelation and is continually renewed by them.

Having made these general remarks, let us trace concisely the history of Christian mysticism in the Western world and, finally, the development of Orthodox mysticism, which interests us above all, and highlight its main issues and features.

Western Christian mysticism

Western Christianity was mainly influenced by Augustine (354-430), who described the image of God, using mainly psychological terminology, starting with the connection of the Creator and creation, which the call of God and the response of man to him turns into an identity. Later, John Scotus Eriugena (810-877), who embraced Neoplatonic philosophy, translated treatises attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, thus giving new life to early medieval mysticism. Western mystics did not pay much attention to the mysticism of the image and turned more to individual and emotional mysticism, thus creating Christian erotic mysticism.

Blessed Augustine in his cell. Botticelli

Among the most prominent singers of spiritual love was Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Love for him is Christocentric, centered on the figure of the crucified Christ. By the XIII century. there was a new perception of the meaning of the incarnation of the Word and of the special role that all creation acquires after Him. Since then, the presence of God has been sought in creation rather than outside it.

Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) taught his contemporaries to treat nature, as well as sick and poor people, with respect and love. A vivid perception of the unique fact that God became man gave Christian erotic mysticism a sensitivity to human pain and an interest in social phenomena. Many Western mystics, such as Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) and Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), were active and made important contributions to social institutions.

Francis of Assisi

Medieval mysticism reached its peak in the writings of Johann Eckhart (1260-1327), who is considered the most important mystical theologian in the West. He managed to combine Greek philosophical thought and the teachings of Augustine with a bold apophatic theology and create a majestic system centered around the theological ontology of the image, raising the mysticism of the image to the highest level. Man is called to cognize the Divine spark contained in him. The new birth of Christ in the innermost depths of the soul is the goal of salvation history. Eckhart insists that mystical communion is not the privilege of a select few, but the primary calling and ultimate goal of mankind. However, in order to achieve it, intellectual activity is not enough for a person, a departure from the world and renunciation of it is necessary. These ideas were given a popular character by Johann Tauler (c. 1300 - 1361), who preached an active personal Christianity. Later, the Dutchman Jan van Ruysbroek (1293-1381) included the mysticism of the creation of the world in the mysticism of the image.

Among the most characteristic representatives of Western erotic mysticism are the Spaniards Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) and John of the Cross (1542-1591). The latter, who was also Teresa's spiritual father, described the spiritual life as an ever-increasing purification - a path that begins in the night of feelings, passes through the mind and ends with the darkness of union with God. Other mystics have called the second and third phases illumination and union, respectively. Teresa called the mystical union in love "marriage" and described the four stages of ascent to God: 1. Immersion in oneself, coupled with prayer; 2. Silent prayer; 3. Prayer of union, in which the will and mind are in union with God. Ecstatic union ("unio mystica"). This teaching had a significant impact on the romantic mysticism of subsequent eras and formed the mystical mood of stochastic, emotional and ecstatic prayer.

Teresa of Avila

Mystical currents also penetrated the Protestant communities that formed after the Reformation. The first of them is associated with the name of W. Weigel (1533-1588), who put together the traditional ideas of the Gnostics and Paracelsus into a coherent system. The second trend, founded by J. Böhme (1575-1624), at first faced serious opposition, but subsequently had a significant impact on the spiritual life of Germany, contributing to the development of the mystical teaching of pietism. In the Anglo-Saxon world, the figure of the mystic J. Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the Quaker movement, stands out. With the development of German idealism under the influence of the ideas of F. Schleiermacher, mysticism attracted the attention of theology. Later, R. Otto will note the deep connection between mystical experience and the essence of religion.

Mysticism of Eastern Orthodoxy

Two inexhaustible artesian sources of mystical experience that nourished Byzantine Orthodox mysticism in its early stages were St. Gregory of Nyssa (335/340-c. 394) and the monk Evagrius of Pontus (345-399). The former argued that the soul can reach the One who is beyond any intellectual knowledge, in "bright darkness", and also defined mystical experience as union with God in love. Euvargius placed reason at the center of mysticism.

Saint Macarius of Egypt

In the 5th century in the writings attributed to Macarius of Egypt, a new source emerges that feeds Orthodox Christian mysticism, the concept that the center of the human personality is in the heart. Evagrius, influenced by the philosophy of the Neoplatonists, viewed man as a mind in captivity of matter and, therefore, believed that the body does not participate in spiritual life. "Conversations of St. Macarius", sprinkled with biblical thought, consider a person as a single whole. The basis of the mysticism expressed in them is the incarnation of the Logos. Unceasing prayer, therefore, does not lead to the liberation of the spirit from the bonds of the flesh, but introduces a person in his entire being - both spirit and body - into the eschatological reality of the Kingdom of God.

The texts that have come down to us under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite, persistently emphasizing the apophaticism of theology, develop the theory of “contemplation of God”, unity with God and call on a person to renounce feelings and mental activity in order to meet God in Divine darkness and enjoy the grace of his contemplation, despite the fact that even here the image of God will remain unclear. The texts of the Areopagitic speak of a stepped ascent. The system of "stages of ascent" corresponds to different degrees of insight. The purpose of this process is the elevation of man and the attainment of the One. Ultimately, this ascent is a gift from God.

Saint Dionysius the Areopagite

In mysticism, which was formed around the Sinai monastery, the central role has been played since the 7th century. The Jesus Prayer begins to play as a prayer of the mind and heart. The last stage of the first period of Byzantine mysticism is dominated by the figures of St. John of Sinai, the author of The Ladder (580-670, or 525-600) and St. Maximus the Confessor (580-662). The book of the first of them is sustained in the spirit of the mysticism of becoming by the will of God. The three virtues are placed at the top - faith, hope and love - and the emphasis is on the Jesus Prayer, which is central to Hesychast spirituality, in the union of the name of the incarnate Word with the breath.

Sinai, St. Catherine's Monastery

Saint Maximus, whose works marked a new stage in the development of Byzantine mysticism, developed the questions of deification ("theosis"), applying the Christological dogma to the development of inner life. He noted the connection between the individual stages of mystical experience, emphasizing that in order to complete it, the theory must be accompanied by morality as a whole, guided by love. The mysticism of Maximus expands and naturally embraces everything. Man in Christ ascends to God with his body in combination with the entire visible world and lifts up the whole creation with him, for he is the connecting link that unites the divided parts of the world.

In the following centuries, the achievements of the mystical Eastern tradition were strengthened. At the turn of the millennium, the majestic pinnacle of Byzantine mysticism rises - Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022; according to other sources: 957-1035) with his students, among whom Nikita Stifat stands out. Simeon's mystical experience is distinguished by tension, intensity, and a purely personal tone. His new contribution was, first of all, the doctrine of light, compiled on the basis of deep and unceasing personal experience. On almost every page of his writings there are references to "light", "illumination" or other similar words. All his mysticism is permeated with a Christological, Paschal, holy-spirit, eschatological mood.

Saint Simeon the New Theologian

A new flowering of Byzantine mysticism is observed in the period from the middle of the 13th to the end of the 14th century. in connection with the development of hesychasm. During this period, the center of spiritual life moved from Sinai and the circles of Constantinople to Athos and to neighboring Thessalonica. A characteristic feature of hesychasm is the desire to achieve a state of absolute peace and silence, excluding chants, learning, and any intellectual activity. This goal, centered on the human heart, is achieved through the repetition of the Jesus Prayer and other practical means that help to concentrate the mind.

A key role in the theological justification of hesychasm was played by St. Gregory Palamas (1296-1359), who was at first a Svyatogorsk monk, and later became the archbishop of Thessalonica. Palamas placed Christian mysticism in the general divine plan of salvation. The main division is between the created (created) and the uncreated (uncreated): the created universe and the uncreated energies of God. The super-essential God cannot be identified with any created concept or idea, and even more so with the philosophical concept of essence. Man, through illumination, participates in the uncreated divine energies. "Divine and idolizing illumination and grace is not the essence, but the energy of God." The thought of Palamas, relying on the authority of Scripture, restored in its rights the matter from which Greek idealism sought to renounce. The human spirit is in fact as fundamentally different from God as the body. God, by His grace, grants salvation to all man: both body and spirit.

Saint Gregory Palamas

In a close geographical region and at about the same time as Palamas, another Greek theologian, Nicholas Cabasilas (1322-1391), having developed his teaching on the Holy Mysteries, also touched on the issues of salvation and union with God. Neither temples nor other sacred places, he taught, can compare in holiness with man, whose nature Christ himself partakes. The mysticism of Cabasilus is distinguished by its deep Christological focus and emphasis on the ontological reality of the Body of Christ, which is the Church.

The Byzantine tradition continued to influence the Orthodox countries under the Turkish yoke. Since the end of the XVIII century. "Philanthropy" of St. Nikodim Svyatogorsky became an anthology of Orthodox mysticism. It influenced the spirit of the new Orthodox Churches.

Russian mysticism

In Orthodox Russia, two currents of mysticism were formed. The first was a direct continuation of the Byzantine and, in general, Orthodox tradition. This current was incessantly nourished by the liturgical life and translations of Byzantine mystics, such as, for example, the Philokalia, translated initially into Church Slavonic, and later (in 1894) into Russian. Russian ascetics, such as, for example, Paisiy Velichkovsky (1722-1794), Seraphim of Sarov (1754-1833) and many others experienced vivid mystical experiences in their lives.

Another trend arose on the basis of translations of various well-known and little-known mystical writers of Western Christianity, usually of a pietistic persuasion, and led to dangerous exaltations and falling into heresy. Characteristic representatives of this second trend were: G.S. Skovoroda (1722-1794), N.I. Novikov and A.F. Lapshin. In the 19th century in Russia, various groups of mystical-ecstatic sense appeared, the main representatives of which were I.G. Tatarinov, A.P. Dubovsky and E.N. Kotelnikov, who called themselves "spirit bearers" and provoked a strong protest from the Church.

The most important representative of Russian mysticism was Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900). Under the obvious influence of the Neoplatonists and mystics of the Christian West, such as Eriugena, Boehme, and others, and also not on the basis of his own vivid mystical experience, he developed the theory of mystical faith, the “universality” of God with the cosmic and historical Universe, etc. Despite the fact that Solovyov initially adhered to Slavophile views, 4 years before his death, he converted to the Catholic faith. Closer to the Orthodox tradition is the figure of the theologian and philosopher AS Khomyakov (1804-1860), who greatly enriched Russian mystical theology. Starting from the mystical experience of the Church and constantly returning to it, he developed the mysticism of universal union and brotherhood, centered in the Spirit of Christ. His works had a significant impact on subsequent Russian theological thought.

Key Issues in Byzantine Mysticism

The key concepts for Byzantine mystical texts are the following: "knowledge", "silence", "sobriety", "prayer", "dispassion", "purification of the mind", "austerity", "practice", "theory", "ecstasy", "illumination", "memory of God", "vision of God", "Divine light", "involvement", "Divine eros", "deification". The uniqueness of mystical experiences is also expressed in antinomies that dialectically describe the Christian experience: “gloomy darkness”, “joyful sorrow”, “sober intoxication”, etc. it should be forgotten that among the most frequently used concepts by Orthodox mystics, the concepts “God”, “Jesus”, “Christ”, “Spirit”, “Holy Trinity”, “grace”, “commandments”, “Cross” are in the first place. , "Resurrection", "love".

The most characteristic features of Byzantine mysticism are:

a) A state of "calm" ecstasy, created by unceasing inner prayer and reason with the help of virtues. Byzantine mysticism does not know the forms of ecstasy noted in other religions (shamanism, African spirit cults, Dionysian ecstasy, dervishes, etc.), which are associated with methods of psychosomatic arousal: dances, drugs, etc. It cannot be identified and with the ecstasy of the mystery religions or with the so-called philosophical ecstasy of the Platonists and Neoplatonists, which consists in the mind going beyond the boundaries of the body, beyond the boundaries of time, so that it could supposedly function in a “pure” way, regardless of anything;

b) Knowability - unknowability. The more a person knows God, the more he becomes convinced of the incomprehensibility of His essence. As a rule, mystics resort to apophatic formulations, such as "super-essential uncertainty" (Dionysius the Areopagite), "unspeakable", "super-unknowable" (Maxim the Confessor);

in) Illumination and heat. The multifaceted image of light receives immediate Christological, pneumatological and eschatological applications. The mystical theory also extends to eschatological contemplation, to the exit from history to the eternal light of the Second Coming. However, despite the frequency of use and the significance of the image of light, no emphasis has ever been placed on external manifestations. They were considered only one of the aspects of the contemplation of God, while the main goal was the meeting with Christ;

G) "Divine Eros". Despite the fact that the word "eros" wanders from text to text of the Byzantine mystics, the erotic descriptions themselves are scarce and differ significantly from the corresponding pages of Islamic or Hindu mystics. Even compared to Western mystics, who often used romantic or realistic descriptions, the Byzantines speak differently about Divine Eros, just as Byzantine icons, devoid of emotion, differ from Western Christian statues. "Divine eros", "blissful eros" is not perceived as sensual excitement. It is directly related to love in its universal form, which is given unchanging primacy;

e) The dialectical connection between "possession" and "not-possession"”, between peace and continuous movement, the continuous search for new experience “from glory to glory” dominates Byzantine mysticism. This ascent is combined with deep humility, with grateful hope in the grace of God, and with a clear awareness of the historical and eschatological perspective;

e) Deification ("theosis"). Byzantine theologians, based on the theology of the incarnation, gradually came to the theology of deification. Saint Maximus the Confessor, who was a zealous adherent of this teaching, asserts that the vision of God in darkness is already participation in God. Participation and communion with the energies of God lead to deification. Thus we become "gods by grace", gods "without identity in essence". This bold vision, full of faith in the power of the grace of God and sustained in the spirit of ontological change, completed in the world by the incarnation of Christ and the unceasing action of the Holy Spirit, is filled with inexpressible optimism about the ultimate goal of man.

Saint Maximus the Confessor

On the whole, Orthodox mysticism is characterized by a calm sobriety and spiritual uplift, in sharp contrast to the mystical theosophical and non-canonical theories and psychosomatic methods. Everything in the world is a gift of the grace of God. Man, first of all, has free will, and it is essentially his only property. External manifestations such as the stigmata (signs corresponding to the wounds of Christ on the body of the believer), so frequent in Western mystics, are not found in the mystics of the East. Many of them specifically warn of the dangers of bodily visions or fantasies. For both destroy the integrity of man, which Christ came to restore.

The mystical experience of the Eastern Church shapes morality and spirituality in general, as well as its liturgical life. The radiance of mystical experience is so all-encompassing that one can speak of the mystical theology and spirituality of the Eastern Church as a whole.

Concluding this topic, it must be emphasized that any type of mysticism is in a natural connection with the general religious context: with the confession and the basic principles of the religion in the bosom of which it was formed. He is influenced by the initial religious concepts and the general orientation of religion, which he, in turn, also influences and in the formation of which he participates.

Additional literature used in the article

Arberry, A.J., Sufism; An Account of the Mystics of Islam, G. Allen and Unwin, London 1950.

Blyth, R.H., Zen and Zen Classics, The Hokuseido Press, Tokyo 19703. Butler, C, Western Mysticism, Constable, London 19673. Dasgupta, S., Hindu Mysticism, Open Court, London 1927. Dupre, L., "Mysticism" , The Encyclopaedia of Religion, (ed. M. Eliade):

Macmillan, New York, τομ. 10 (1987), pp. 245-261. Fedopov, G.P. (ed.), A Treasury of Russian Spirituality, Belmont, Mass, Nordlund 19752.

Source in Modern Greek: Archbishop Anastasios of Albania (Yannulatos), Traces of the Search for the Transcendental. Publishing house: Akritas, pp. 319-355.

Translation from modern Greek: the editors of the online edition "".

In European culture, mysticism appeared in the 19th century at a time of crisis and loss of potential for further development. Interest in him has not faded to this day. There is an opinion that the origins of mysticism are Eastern religious and philosophical currents. However, this is not quite true. Of course, the East is filled with mysticism and influenced the religious minds of Europeans at the time when it began to seep into European culture. The influence of the east is strong to this day, it attracts precisely the mystical side of the worldview. But classical religions, including the world religion - Christianity, are not devoid of mysticism.

The concept of mysticism

Judaism, Islam, various religious movements, such as Manichaeism, Sufism and others, have their own mystical school. For example, the Shazaliya and Naqshbandiya Sufis believe that their way of teaching is the fastest way to understand the Islamic faith. By a general definition, mysticism is the emergence in a person of supersenses, which give him the opportunity to contemplate higher powers. Western mysticism differs from Eastern. The first speaks of a meeting with God, of his knowledge, of the presence of God in the heart, soul of man. At the same time, he gives Him a higher place above the world and above man as the source of all living and existing things, as the giver of all blessings. Eastern mysticism is complete dissolution in the Absolute: God is me, I am God. The very word "mysticism" ("mysticism") is of Greek origin and means - "mysterious, hidden". That is, mysticism is a person's belief in an invisible connection and direct communication with higher metaphysical powers. The definition of mysticism can represent the practical experience of a mystic's communication with an object of higher powers, or a philosophical (religious) doctrine of how to achieve such communication.

Real and cognitive mysticism

Real - is achieved by experience, when a person's actions lead to a special connection with the secret higher forces, independent of circumstances, time and space. She is insightful and active. Real mysticism is the desire to directly consider phenomena and objects that are outside a given space and time, this is the area of ​​soothsayers, fortune-tellers, clairvoyants, etc. The second one also seeks to act: to influence various processes at a distance with its own suggestion, to materialize and dematerialize spirits . Active mysticism is the practice of hypnotists, magicians, practitioners of theurgy, sorcerers, mediums, and the like. There are many charlatans and deceivers among mystics. However, there are cases when scientists record the presence of a real mystical component in the practice of mystics. Yet it is extremely rare to find such mystics who never err. And this suggests that the bulk of such people are not on the true mystical path, their minds are under the control of fallen spirits, who play with them as they please.

Alchemists and mysticism

Most philosophers and scientists in the field of mysticism believe that there is not enough evidence to classify alchemists as mystics. It's all about practical material experience with natural nature and its components, based on the principle of the unity of matter. Alchemy does not fit into generally accepted ideas: mysticism, the definition of which comes from the knowledge of the laws of the spiritual world, subject to other non-material laws, has nothing to do with the goal of transforming nature into a more perfect state. Mysticism always presupposes the communication of the cognizer with the object of cognition of higher extraterrestrial forces. No matter how mysterious and enigmatic the alchemist may be, he always remains that gold maker, the recipient of the “perfect” metal from the “imperfect” metal. And all his activities are aimed not at the knowledge of the Higher Mind, but at the creation of benefits for earthly life, which is excluded in mysticism, which pursues the goal of connecting with the world where spirits live.

Christian mysticism

In Christianity, mysticism occupies a special place, but it is fundamentally different from various kinds of magic and the like. First of all, it is real. This is an experienced mystic, without any speculation. Where human conjectures are present is called the state of delusion. For people who have not studied Christianity, mysticism in philosophy is often presented as non-verbal. It should be noted that mysticism in Orthodoxy and Catholicism, not to mention the various sectarian movements, is significantly different. Catholic mysticism is more focused on the sensual perception of the Divine, as a result of which it is easy for a person, as orthodox theologians believe, to fall into a state of delusion (false knowledge). In such a state, when a person shows a tendency to mysticism, relying on his feelings, he easily falls under the influence of demonic forces without realizing it. Charm easily appears on the basis of pride, selfishness and love of glory. Orthodox mystical experience is unity with God through the humility of one's passions, the realization of the sinfulness and sickness of the soul, the healer of which can only be God. The experience of Orthodox asceticism is widely disclosed in patristic literature.

Philosophy and mysticism

The psyche of a person following the path of mysticism, his worldview and worldview are in a special, mysterious state of communication with the spiritual world. Mysticism itself is aimed precisely at the path of cognition of the object of the spiritual world. By definition, philosophical mysticism focuses on solving universally significant problems of the worldview: the meaning of life, the process of modeling the correct way of being, achieving happiness, knowing the Absolute. The mystic-philosopher, with the help of his constructions, imparts beingness to the spiritual world. As a rule, the philosophical understanding of mysticism is contradictory: it implies the unity of mythology, religion, science, rational, visual and conceptual.

Wisdom and Philosophy

The concept of philosophy is the search for wisdom, that is, the philosopher is always on the way, he is a searching person. A man who is wise and who has found the truth, the knowledge of being, will no longer be a philosopher. After all, he no longer seeks, for he has found the source of wisdom - God, and now only seeks to know Him, and through God - himself and the world around him. Such a path is correct, and the path of philosophical search can easily lead to confusion. Therefore, often scientists and philosophers came to a deep state of religiosity, an understanding of the harmony of the world, on which the hand of the Creator was working.

Philosophical mystical currents

Among the common ones there are representatives of mysticism, quite well-known in Russia:

• "Blavatsky's Theosophy".
• "Living Ethics (Agni Yoga) of the Roerichs".
• "Russian mysticism of Gurdjieff", based on the Sufi teachings of "Chishti" and "Zen Buddhism".
• Andreev's historiosophy is a synthesis of Christianity and the Vedic worldview.
• "Integral Yoga Ghosha".
• "Neo-Vedanta Vivekananda".
• "The Anthropology of Castaneda".
• Kabbalah.
• Hasidism.

Manifestation of mystical states

In Christianity, mysticism is (briefly) the descent of the grace of God upon a person with the permission of God himself, and not by the will of man. When a person tries to attract grace by volitional efforts, he runs the risk of being deceived either by his own imagination or by demonic forces that can take on any appearances that can mislead a person. That is why in Scripture it is forbidden to talk with demons, even about a saint. "Depart from me, Satan," is the way to say unclean spirits. Since the fallen angels are very skillful and excellent psychologists, they subtly intertwine lies with the truth and can easily deceive a person inexperienced in asceticism.

Often a mystical state of the human psyche is discovered after brain injuries or is associated with its pathology, when there was a threat to life. For example, northern shamanism practices bringing its successor into a state of clinical death through hypothermia. In their opinion, during such a state, the soul passes into the world of spirits and acquires the ability to communicate with them even after returning to its earthly body.

There are special psychedelic methods for changing consciousness, psychological state through breathing and other means. With their help, a person is introduced into a mystical state. For example: LSD, Sufi dhikrs, the holotropic method, the use of certain types of mushrooms, etc. They seem harmless to many, but in fact they are dangerous techniques, after the application of which a person may not return to the original state of his own psyche, because it is seriously is damaged.