Mongol Tatar invasion of Rus' 13th century. Mongol invasion of Rus'

In the 12th century, the Mongols roamed Central Asia and were engaged in cattle breeding. This type activity required constant change of habitats. To acquire new territories it was necessary strong army, which the Mongols had. It was distinguished by good organization and discipline, all of which ensured the victorious march of the Mongols.

In 1206, a congress of the Mongolian nobility - kurultai - was held, at which Khan Temujin was elected great khan, and he received the name Genghis. At first, the Mongols were interested in vast territories in China, Siberia and Central Asia. Later they headed west.

Volga Bulgaria and Rus' were the first to stand in their way. The Russian princes “met” the Mongols in a battle that took place in 1223 on the Kalka River. The Mongols attacked the Polovtsy, and they turned to their neighbors, the Russian princes, for help. The defeat of the Russian troops on Kalka was due to the disunity and disorganized actions of the princes. At this time, the Russian lands were significantly weakened by civil strife, and the princely squads were more occupied with internal disagreements. A well-organized army of nomads won its first victory relatively easily.

P.V. Ryzhenko. Kalka

Invasion

The victory at Kalka was just the beginning. In 1227, Genghis Khan died, and his grandson Batu became the head of the Mongols. In 1236, the Mongols decided to finally deal with the Cumans and next year defeated them near the Don.

Now it is the turn of the Russian principalities. Ryazan resisted for six days, but was captured and destroyed. Then it was the turn of Kolomna and Moscow. In February 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. The siege of the city lasted four days. Neither the militia nor the princely warriors were able to defend the city. Vladimir fell, the princely family died in a fire.

After this, the Mongols split. One part moved to the northwest and besieged Torzhok. On the City River the Russians were defeated. Not reaching one hundred kilometers from Novgorod, the Mongols stopped and moved south, destroying cities and villages along the way.

Southern Rus' felt the full brunt of the invasion in the spring of 1239. The first victims were Pereyaslavl and Chernigov. The Mongols began the siege of Kyiv in the fall of 1240. The defenders fought back for three months. The Mongols were able to take the city only with heavy losses.

Consequences

Batu was going to continue the campaign to Europe, but the condition of the troops did not allow him to do this. They were drained of blood, and a new campaign never took place. And in Russian historiography, the period from 1240 to 1480 is known as the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'.

During this period, all contacts, including trade, with the West practically ceased. Mongol khans controlled foreign policy. The collection of tribute and the appointment of princes became mandatory. Any disobedience was severely punished.

The events of these years caused significant damage to the Russian lands; they fell far behind European countries. The economy was weakened, farmers went north, trying to protect themselves from the Mongols. Many artisans fell into slavery, and some crafts simply ceased to exist. Culture suffered no less damage. Many temples were destroyed and no new ones were built for a long time.

Capture of Suzdal by the Mongols.
Miniature from the Russian chronicle

However, some historians believe that the yoke stopped the political fragmentation of the Russian lands and even gave further impetus to their unification.

Mongolian Tatar invasion Rus' fell during a period of princely civil strife, which greatly contributed to the success of the conquerors. It was led by the grandson of the great Genghis Khan, Batu, who started a war against the ancient Russian state and became the main destroyer of its lands.

First and second trip

In 1237, in winter, the first major attack of the Mongol-Tatar army on Rus' took place - the Ryazan principality became their victim. The Ryazan people defended themselves heroically, but there were too many attackers - without receiving help from other principalities (although messengers were sent out with alarming news), Ryazan held out for five days. The principality was captured, and its capital was not only completely plundered, but also destroyed. The local prince and his son were killed.

Next on their path was the Vladimir Principality. The battle began from Kolomna, where the prince's troops were defeated, then the Mongols captured Moscow and approached Vladimir. The city, like Ryazan, held out for 5 days and fell. The last decisive battle for the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was the battle on the City River (March 4, 1238), where Batu completely defeated the remnants of the princely army. The principality was ravaged and burned almost completely.

Rice. 1. Khan Batu.

Next, Batu planned to capture Novgorod, but Torzhok became an unexpected obstacle on his way, stopping the Mongol army for two weeks. After its capture, the conquerors nevertheless moved towards Novgorod, but as a result of unknown reasons, they turned south and were stuck for seven long weeks at the walls of the heroically defending Kozelsk.

Impressed by how long this city held out against his large and well-trained army, Batu called it “evil.”

The second campaign began in 1239 and lasted until 1240. During these two years, Batu was able to capture Pereyaslavl and Chernigov, the last of the large cities was Kyiv. After its capture and destruction, the Mongols easily dealt with the Galicia-Volyn principality and went to Eastern Europe.

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Rice. 2. Map of the Mongol invasion.

Why was Rus' defeated?

There are several reasons why such a significant territory was captured quite quickly. The first and most important is the disunity of the principalities, which is confirmed by the entire history of Russia. Each of them pursued its own interests, so that political fragmentation became a prerequisite for the fact that the princes did not unite military forces, and each individual army was not numerous and strong enough to stop the Mongols.

The second reason was that the conquerors had a large army, equipped at that time with the latest military technology. An additional factor was that by the time Batu’s military leaders and soldiers arrived in Rus', they already had significant experience in siege warfare, because they captured many cities.

Finally, the iron discipline that reigned in the Mongol army, where every soldier was raised from childhood, also contributed.

Rice. 3. The army of Khan Batu.

This discipline was also supported by a very strict system of punishments: the smallest unit in the army was ten - and all of it was executed if one soldier showed cowardice.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'

The results of the invasion were very difficult - this is described even in ancient Russian literature. First of all, the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols led to the almost complete destruction of cities - out of 75 that existed at that time, 45 were completely destroyed, that is, more than half. The population decreased greatly, especially the layer of artisans, which slowed down the development of Rus'. The consequence of this was economic backwardness.

Important social processes– formation of a class of free people, decentralization of power. The southern and southwestern parts of Rus' were alienated, and the division of the remaining territory continued - the struggle for power was supported by the Mongols, who were interested in disuniting the principalities.

Empires on the territory of ancient Russian principalities. This event left a deep mark on the history of our Fatherland. Next, let's look at how Batu's invasion of Rus' took place (briefly).

Background

The Mongol feudal lords who lived long before Batu had plans to conquer Eastern European territory. In the 1220s. preparations were made in some way for a future conquest. An important part of it was the campaign of the thirty thousand army of Jebe and Subedei to the territory of Transcaucasia and South-Eastern Europe in 1222-24. Its purpose was exclusively reconnaissance and collection of information. In 1223, the battle took place during this campaign and ended in victory for the Mongols. As a result of the campaign, the future conquerors thoroughly studied future battlefields, learned about fortifications and troops, and received information about the location of the principalities of Rus'. From the army of Jebe and Subedei, they headed to Volga Bulgaria. But there the Mongols were defeated and returned to Central Asia through the steppes of modern Kazakhstan. The beginning of Batu's invasion of Rus' was quite sudden.

Devastation of the Ryazan territory

Batu’s invasion of Rus', in short, pursued the goal of enslaving the people, capturing and annexing new territories. Mongols appeared on the southern borders of the Ryazan principality demanding tribute be paid to them. Prince Yuri asked for help from Mikhail Chernigovsky and Yuri Vladimirsky. At Batu's headquarters, the Ryazan embassy was destroyed. Prince Yuri led his army, as well as the Murom regiments, to the border battle, but the battle was lost. Yuri Vsevolodovich sent a united army to help Ryazan. It included the regiments of his son Vsevolod, the people of the governor Eremey Glebovich, and Novgorod detachments. The forces that retreated from Ryazan also joined this army. The city fell after a six-day siege. The sent regiments managed to give battle to the conquerors near Kolomna, but were defeated.

Results of the first battles

The beginning of Batu's invasion of Rus' was marked by the destruction of not only Ryazan, but also the ruin of the entire principality. The Mongols captured Pronsk and captured Prince Oleg Ingvarevich the Red. Batu's invasion of Rus' (the date of the first battle is indicated above) was accompanied by the destruction of many cities and villages. So, the Mongols destroyed Belgorod Ryazan. This city was never subsequently restored. Tula researchers identify it with a settlement near the Polosni River, near the village of Beloroditsa (16 km from modern Veneva). Voronezh Ryazan was also wiped off the face of the earth. The ruins of the city stood deserted for several centuries. Only in 1586 a fort was built on the site of the settlement. The Mongols also destroyed the fairly famous city of Dedoslavl. Some researchers identify it with a settlement near the village of Dedilovo, on the right bank of the river. Shat.

Attack on the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

After the defeat of the Ryazan lands, Batu's invasion of Rus' was somewhat suspended. When the Mongols invaded the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, they were unexpectedly overtaken by the regiments of Evpatiy Kolovrat, a Ryazan boyar. Thanks to this surprise, the squad was able to defeat the invaders, inflicting heavy losses on them. In 1238, after a five-day siege, Moscow fell. Vladimir (Yuri’s youngest son) and Philip Nyanka stood in defense of the city. At the head of the thirty thousand strong detachment that defeated the Moscow squad, according to sources, was Shiban. Yuri Vsevolodovich, moving north to the Sit River, began to assemble a new squad, while expecting help from Svyatoslav and Yaroslav (his brothers). In early February 1238, after an eight-day siege, Vladimir fell. The family of Prince Yuri died there. In the same February, in addition to Vladimir, cities such as Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Starodub-on-Klyazma, Rostov, Galich-Mersky, Kostroma, Gorodets, Tver, Dmitrov, Ksnyatin, Kashin, Uglich, Yaroslavl fell. . The Novgorod suburbs of Volok Lamsky and Vologda were also captured.

The situation in the Volga region

Batu's invasion of Rus' was very large-scale. In addition to the main ones, the Mongols also had secondary forces. With the help of the latter, the Volga region was captured. Over the course of three weeks, secondary forces led by Burundai covered twice the distance than the main Mongol troops during the siege of Torzhok and Tver, and approached the City River from the direction of Uglich. The Vladimir regiments did not have time to prepare for battle; they were surrounded and almost completely destroyed. Some of the warriors were taken prisoner. But at the same time, the Mongols themselves suffered serious losses. The center of Yaroslav's possessions lay directly on the path of the Mongols, who were advancing towards Novgorod from Vladimir. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was captured within five days. During the capture of Tver, one of the sons of Prince Yaroslav died (his name has not been preserved). The chronicles do not contain information about the participation of Novgorodians in the Battle of the City. There is no mention of any actions of Yaroslav. Some researchers quite often emphasize that Novgorod did not send help to help Torzhok.

Results of the seizure of the Volga lands

The historian Tatishchev, speaking about the results of the battles, draws attention to the fact that the losses in the Mongols’ detachments were several times greater than those of the Russians. However, the Tatars made up for them at the expense of prisoners. At that time there were more of them than the invaders themselves. So, for example, the assault on Vladimir began only after a detachment of Mongols returned from Suzdal with prisoners.

Defense of Kozelsk

Batu's invasion of Rus' from the beginning of March 1238 took place according to a specific plan. After the capture of Torzhok, the remnants of Burundai’s detachment, uniting with the main forces, suddenly turned to the steppe. The invaders did not reach Novgorod by about 100 versts. Different sources give different versions of this turn. Some say that the cause was the spring thaw, others say the threat of famine. One way or another, the invasion of Batu’s troops into Rus' continued, but in a different direction.

The Mongols were now divided into two groups. The main detachment passed east of Smolensk (30 km from the city) and made a stop in the lands of Dolgomostye. One of the literary sources contains information that the Mongols were defeated and fled. After this, the main detachment moved south. Here, the invasion of Rus' by Batu Khan was marked by the invasion of the Chernigov lands and the burning of Vshchizh, located in close proximity to the central regions of the principality. According to one of the sources, in connection with these events, 4 sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich died. Then the main forces of the Mongols turned sharply to the northeast. Having bypassed Karachev and Bryansk, the Tatars took possession of Kozelsk. The eastern group, meanwhile, took place in the spring of 1238 near Ryazan. The detachments were led by Buri and Kadan. At that time, Vasily, the 12-year-old grandson of Mstislav Svyatoslavovich, was reigning in Kozelsk. The battle for the city dragged on for seven weeks. By May 1238, both groups of Mongols united at Kozelsk and captured it three days later, albeit with heavy losses.

Further developments

By the middle of the 13th century, the invasion of Rus' began to take on an episodic character. The Mongols invaded only the border lands, in the process of suppressing uprisings in the Polovtsian steppes and the Volga region. In the chronicle, at the end of the story about the campaign in the northeastern territories, there is mention of the calm that accompanied Batu’s invasion of Rus' (“the year of peace” - from 1238 to 1239). After him, on October 18, 1239, Chernigov was besieged and taken. After the fall of the city, the Mongols began to plunder and destroy the territories along the Seim and Desna. Rylsk, Vyr, Glukhov, Putivl, Gomiy were devastated and destroyed.

Hiking in the area near the Dnieper

A corps led by Bukday was sent to help the Mongol troops involved in Transcaucasia. This happened in 1240. Around the same period, Batu decided to send Munke, Buri and Guyuk home. The remaining detachments regrouped, replenished a second time with captured Volga and Polovtsian prisoners. The next direction was the territory of the right bank of the Dnieper. Most of them (Kiev, Volyn, Galician and, presumably, the Turov-Pinsk principality) by 1240 were united under the rule of Daniil and Vasilko, the sons of Roman Mstislavovich (Volyn ruler). The first, considering himself unable to resist the Mongols on his own, set off on the eve of the invasion of Hungary. Presumably Daniel's goal was to ask King Béla VI for help in repelling the Tatar attacks.

Consequences of Batu's invasion of Rus'

As a result of the barbaric raids of the Mongols, a huge number of the population of the state died. A significant part of large and small cities and villages was destroyed. Chernigov, Tver, Ryazan, Suzdal, Vladimir, and Kyiv suffered significantly. The exceptions were Pskov, Veliky Novgorod, the cities of Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk and Suzdal principalities. As a result of the invasion of comparative development, the culture of large settlements suffered irreparable damage. For several decades, stone construction was almost completely stopped in cities. In addition, such complex crafts as the production of glass jewelry, the production of grain, niello, cloisonne enamel, and glazed polychrome ceramics disappeared. Rus' is significantly behind in its development. It was thrown back several centuries ago. And while the Western guild industry was entering the stage of primitive accumulation, Russian craft had to again go through that part of the historical path that had been done before Batu’s invasion.

In the southern lands, the settled population disappeared almost completely. The surviving residents went to the forest areas of the northeast, settling along the interfluve of the Oka and Northern Volga. These areas had a colder climate and less fertile soils than the southern regions, destroyed and ravaged by the Mongols. Trade routes were controlled by the Tatars. Because of this, there was no connection between Russia and other overseas states. The socio-economic development of the Fatherland in that historical period was at a very low level.

Opinion of military historians

Researchers note that the process of forming and merging rifle detachments and heavy cavalry regiments, which specialized in direct strikes with edged weapons, ended in Rus' immediately after Batu’s invasion. During this period, there was a unification of functions in the person of a single feudal warrior. He was forced to shoot with a bow and at the same time fight with a sword and spear. From this we can conclude that even the exclusively selected, feudal part of the Russian army in its development was thrown back a couple of centuries. The chronicles do not contain information about the existence of individual rifle detachments. This is understandable. For their formation, people were needed who were ready to break away from production and sell their blood for money. And in the economic situation in which Rus' was, mercenaryism was completely unaffordable.

One of the most tragic events in Russian history was the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' under the leadership of Genghis Khan’s grandson, Batu. Until a certain time, no one imagined that the tribes of nomadic people, once considered savage, would unite and begin to pose a serious threat to everyone. The Mongols themselves had no idea that they would soon gain power over one part of the world, and the other part would pay them tribute.

Historiography about the Mongol-Tatar invasion

Domestic historians began to study in detail the campaigns led by Batu to Russian lands in the 18th century. Not only scientists, but even writers in their writings tried to tell their version of these events. Among the people involved in the study of the Mongol invasions, the most famous works of the following scientists:

• The famous historian V.N. Tatishchev, in the book “Russian History” he wrote, for the first time examined in detail the topic of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In his work, Tatishchev took ancient Russian chronicles as a basis. Subsequently, the work itself and the conclusions drawn by the author were used by many historians in their works.
• N.M. Karamzin, the writer, studied the invasion just as closely. Having emotionally described the conquest of Russian lands by tumens (large tactical units of the Mongol army), Karamzin concluded why the Mongol invasion is the main reason, and not the second (minor) backwardness of Russia in comparison with advanced European countries. Karamzin was the first among researchers to consider this invasion a separate page of historical heritage.

During the 19th century, researchers paid more and more attention to the issues of Batu's invasion of Rus'. The phrase “Mongol-Tatars”, which appeared in 1823, is due to scientific circles P. N. Naumov. In subsequent years, historians focused their attention on the military details of the invasion, namely the strategy and tactics of the Mongol army.

The topic was discussed in M. S. Gastev’s book “Discourse on the reasons that slowed down civic education in the Russian state,” published in 1832. M. Ivanin’s work “On the Art of War and the Conquests of the Mongols,” published in 1846, is devoted to the same issue. I. Berezin, a professor at the University in Kazan, made a significant contribution to the study of the Mongol invasions. The scientist studied many sources that had not been considered until that time. The data he took from the works of the authors of the East Juvaini, Rashid ad-Din, were applied in the works of Berezin: “The First Mongol Invasion of Russia”, “Batu’s Invasion of Russia”.

The Russian historian also made his own interpretation of those events S. M. Soloviev. In contrast to the views expressed by N. M. Karamzin and the Russian orientalist H. D. Frehn about the strong impact of the Mongol invasion on the life of Rus', he was of the opinion that this event had an insignificant influence on the life of the Russian principalities. V. Klyuchevsky, M. Pokrovsky, A. Presnyakov, S. Platonov and other researchers had the same point of view. In the 19th century, the Mongolian theme became an important stage Russian history, studying the period of the Middle Ages.

How the Mongol-Tatars unification began

Three decades before the invasion of Russian territory, an army was formed near the Onon River from among the feudal lords and their warriors, arriving from different parts of the Mongolian steppe. The unification was headed by the Supreme Ruler Temujin.

The All-Mongolian congress of local nobility (kurultai) in 1206 proclaimed him the great Kagan - the highest title of nomads - and named him Genghis Khan. He gathered many tribes of nomads under his leadership. This unification put an end to internecine wars and led to the formation of a stable economic base on the path of development of the new emerging state.

But despite favorable circumstances and prospects, the authorities turned the people they governed towards war and conquest. The result of this policy in 1211 was the Chinese campaign, and a little later an invasion of Russian lands was carried out. The Mongol invasion itself, its causes, course, and consequences have been studied and analyzed many times by various researchers: from historians to writers. The main reason that caused the repeated campaigns of the Tatar-Mongols to other countries was the desire for easy money and the ruin of other peoples.

In those days, raising local breeds of livestock brought little profit, so it was decided to enrich themselves by robbing people living in neighboring countries. The organizer of the tribal association, Genghis Khan, was a brilliant commander. Under his leadership, the conquest of Northern China, Central Asia, and the steppes from the Caspian Sea to Pacific Ocean. Their own territories, large in area, did not stop the army: new campaigns of conquest were planned on foreign lands.

Reasons for the success of the Mongol army

The main reason for the victories won by the Mongols was the superiority of their military strength, thanks to a well-trained and organized army and its iron discipline. The army was distinguished by its maneuverability, the ability to quickly cover significant distances, since it mainly consisted of cavalry. Bows and arrows were used as weapons. In China, the Mongols borrowed weapons that made it possible to successfully attack a large enemy fortress.

The success of the Mongol-Tatars was accompanied by a well-thought-out strategy of action and the political inability of the conquered cities and countries to offer worthy resistance to the enemy. The tactical actions of the Mongol-Tatars consisted of a surprise attack, creating fragmentation in the ranks of the enemy and his further destruction. Thanks to the chosen strategy, they were able for a long time maintain influence in the territories of the occupied lands.

First conquests

The years 1222−1223 were written into history as the period of the first wave of conquests, which began with the invasion of the territories of the Eastern European steppes. The main Mongol troops, led by the talented and cruel commanders Jebe and Subedei, beloved by Genghis Khan, set out on a campaign against the Polovtsians in 1223.

Those, in order to expel the enemy, decided to turn to the Russian princes for help. The combined troops of both sides moved towards the enemy, crossed the Dnieper River and headed towards the East.

The Mongols, under the guise of retreat, were able to lure the Russian-Polovtsian army to the bank of the Kalka River. Here the warriors fought a decisive battle on May 31. There was no unity in the coalition squads; there were constant disputes between the princes. Some of them did not participate in the battle at all. The logical result of this battle was complete defeat Russian-Polovtsian army. However, after the victory, the Mongol troops did not set out to conquer Russian lands due to the lack of sufficient forces for this.

4 years later (in 1227) Genghis Khan died. He wanted his fellow tribesmen to rule the whole world. The decision to launch a new aggressive campaign against European lands was made by the Kurultai in 1235. Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, headed the cavalry army.

Stages of the invasion of Rus'

The Mongol-Tatar army invaded Russian land twice:

• Hike to the northeast of Rus'.
• Trek to Southern Rus'.

First, in 1236, the Mongols destroyed Volga Bulgaria - a state that at that time occupied the territory of the middle Volga region and the Kama basin, and went towards the Don to once again conquer the Polovtsian lands. In December 1937, the Polovtsians were defeated. Then came the invasion of Batu Khan into northeastern Rus'. The army's route lay through the Ryazan principality.

Mongol campaigns in 1237-1238

Events in Rus' began to develop precisely during these years. At the head of the cavalry, consisting of 150 thousand people, was Batu, with him was Subedey, who knew Russian soldiers from previous battles. The Mongol cavalry, conquering all the cities along the way, quickly advanced across the country, as evidenced by the map reflecting the direction of movement of the Mongols on Russian soil.

Ryazan held a siege for six days, was destroyed and fell at the end of 1237. Batu's army set off to conquer northern lands, first of all Vladimir. Along the way, the Mongols ravaged the city of Kolomna, where Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and his retinue tried in vain to delay the enemies and were defeated. The siege of Moscow lasted 4 days. The city fell in January 1238.

The battle for Vladimir began in February 1238. The Vladimir prince, ruling the city, tried in vain to organize a militia and repel the enemies. The siege of Vladimir lasted 8 days, and then as a result of the assault the city was captured. It was set on fire. With the fall of Vladimir, virtually all the lands of the eastern and northern directions passed to Batu.

He took the cities of Tver and Yuryev, Suzdal and Pereslavl. Then the army split: some Mongols came to the Sit River, others began the siege of Torzhok. The Mongols won a victory in the City on March 4, 1238, defeating the Russian squads. Their further goal was to attack Novgorod, but a hundred miles away they turned back.

The foreigners ravaged all the cities they entered, but suddenly they met persistent resistance provided by the city of Kozelsk. The townspeople fought off enemy attacks for seven long weeks. Still, the city was defeated. Khan nicknamed it an evil city, eventually destroying it. Thus ended Batu’s first campaign against Rus'.

Invasion of 1239−1242

After a break that lasted more than a year, the Russian lands were again attacked by the Mongol army. In the spring of 1239, Batu went on a campaign to the south of Rus'. It began with the fall of Pereyaslav in March, and Chernigov in October.

The not too fast advance of the Mongols was explained by the simultaneous conduct of an active struggle with the Polovtsians. In September 1940, the enemy army approached Kyiv, which belonged to Prince Galitsky. The siege of the city began.

For three months the people of Kiev fought, trying to repel the enemy's onslaught. Only through colossal losses did the Mongols take control of the city on December 6th. The enemies acted with unprecedented brutality. The capital of Rus' was almost completely destroyed. According to chronology, the completion of the conquests and the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (1240−1480) in Rus' are associated with the date of the capture of Kyiv. Then the enemy army split in two: one part decided to capture Vladimir-Volynsky, the other was going to strike Galich.

After the fall of these cities, by the beginning of spring 1241, the Mongol army was on its way to Europe. But huge losses forced the invaders to return to the Lower Volga region. Batu’s warriors did not dare to start a new campaign, and Europe felt relieved. In fact, the Mongol army was dealt a serious blow by the fierce resistance of the Russian lands.

Results of the Mongol invasion of Russian lands

After enemy raids, the Russian land was torn to pieces. Foreigners destroyed and plundered some cities, while only ashes remained from others. The enemies captured the inhabitants of the defeated cities. In the west of the Mongol Empire in 1243, Batu organized the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy. There were no captured Russian territories in its composition.

The Mongols made Rus' a vassal, but they could not enslave. The subordination of the Russian lands to the Golden Horde was manifested in the annual obligation to pay tribute. In addition, Russian princes could rule cities only after they were approved for this position by the Golden Horde Khan. The Horde yoke hung over Russia for two long centuries.

According to the official version of historians, the definition of the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' is briefly as follows:

• Rus''s deep dependence on the Golden Horde.
• Annual payment of tribute to the invaders.
• A complete lack of development of the country due to the establishment of the yoke.

The essence of such views is that all the problems of Rus' were then to blame for the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The historian L.N. Gumilyov held a different point of view. He presented his arguments and pointed out some inconsistencies in the historical interpretation of the Mongol invasion of Rus'. There are still disputes over what impact the Mongol yoke had on the country, what the relationship was between the Horde and Russia, and what this event turned out to be for the country. One thing is certain: it played a significant role in the life of Rus'.

Battle of Kalka.

At the beginning of the 13th century. There was a unification of the nomadic Mongol tribes, who began their campaigns of conquest. The tribal union was headed by Genghis Khan, a brilliant commander and politician. Under his leadership, the Mongols conquered Northern China, Central Asia, and steppe territories stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea.

The first clash between the Russian principalities and the Mongols occurred in 1223, during which a Mongol reconnaissance detachment descended from the southern slopes of the Caucasus mountains and invaded the Polovtsian steppes. The Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help. Several princes responded to this call. The Russian-Polovtsian army met the Mongols on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223. In the ensuing battle, the Russian princes acted uncoordinatedly, and part of the army did not participate in the battle at all. As for the Polovtsians, they could not withstand the onslaught of the Mongols and fled. As a result of the battle, the Russian-Polovtsian army was completely defeated, the Russian squads suffered heavy losses: only every tenth warrior returned home. But the Mongols did not invade Rus'. They turned back to the Mongolian steppes.

Reasons for the Mongol victories

The main reason for the victories of the Mongols was the superiority of their army, which was well organized and trained. The Mongols managed to create the best army in the world, which maintained strict discipline. The Mongol army consisted almost entirely of cavalry, so it was maneuverable and could cover very long distances. The Mongol's main weapon was a powerful bow and several quivers of arrows. The enemy was fired at from a distance, and only then, if necessary, selected units entered the battle. The Mongols made extensive use of military techniques such as feinting, flanking, and encirclement.

Siege weapons were borrowed from China, with which the conquerors could capture large fortresses. Conquered peoples often provided military contingents to the Mongols. The Mongols attached great importance to reconnaissance. An order was emerging in which, before the proposed military actions, spies and intelligence officers penetrated into the country of the future enemy.

The Mongols quickly dealt with any disobedience, brutally suppressing any attempts at resistance. Using the policy of “divide and rule,” they sought to fragment the enemy forces in the conquered states. It was thanks to this strategy that they managed to maintain their influence in the occupied lands for a fairly long period of time.

Batu's campaigns in Rus'

Batu's invasion of North-Eastern Rus' (Batu's 1st campaign)

In 1236, the Mongols undertook a grandiose campaign to the west. The army was led by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, the Mongol army approached the borders of North-Eastern Rus'. In the fall of 1237, the conquerors invaded the Ryazan principality.

The Russian princes did not want to unite in the face of a new and formidable enemy. The Ryazan people, left alone, were defeated in a border battle, and after a five-day siege, the Mongols took the city itself by storm.

Then the Mongol army invaded the Principality of Vladimir, where it was met by the Grand Duke's squad under the leadership of the son of the Grand Duke. In the battle of Kolomna, the Russian army was defeated. Taking advantage of the confusion of the Russian princes in the face of impending danger, the Mongols successively captured Moscow, Suzdal, Rostov, Tver, Vladimir and other cities.

In March 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River between the Mongols and the Russian army, gathered throughout North-Eastern Rus'. The Mongols won a decisive victory, killing the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri in battle.

Then the conquerors headed towards Novgorod, but, fearing to get stuck in the spring thaw, they turned back. On the way back, the Mongols took Kursk and Kozelsk. Kozelsk, called the “Evil City” by the Mongols, offered especially fierce resistance.

Batu's campaign against Southern Rus' (Batu's 2nd campaign)

During 1238 -1239 The Mongols fought with the Polovtsians, after whose conquest they set off on a second campaign against Rus'. The main forces here were sent to Southern Rus'; In North-Eastern Rus', the Mongols captured only the city of Murom.

The political fragmentation of the Russian principalities helped the Mongols quickly seize the southern lands. The capture of Pereyaslavl and Chernigov was followed by the fall of the ancient Russian capital, Kyiv, on December 6, 1240, after fierce fighting. Then the conquerors moved to the Galicia-Volyn land.

After the defeat of Southern Rus', the Mongols invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and reached Croatia. Despite his victories, Batu was forced to stop, since he did not receive reinforcements, and in 1242 he completely recalled his troops from these countries.

In Western Europe, which was awaiting imminent ruin, this was perceived as a miracle. The main reason for the miracle was the stubborn resistance of the Russian lands and the damage suffered by Batu’s army during the campaign.

Establishment of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

After returning from the western campaign, Batu Khan founded a new capital in the lower reaches of the Volga. The state of Batu and his successors, covering lands from Western Siberia to Eastern Europe, was called the Golden Horde. All the surviving Russian princes who were at the head of the devastated lands were summoned here in 1243. From the hands of Batu they received labels - letters of authorization for the right to govern one or another principality. So Rus' fell under the yoke of the Golden Horde.

The Mongols established an annual tribute - “exit”. Initially the tribute was not fixed. Its supply was monitored by tax farmers, who often simply robbed the population. This practice caused discontent and unrest in Rus', so in order to fix the exact amount of tribute, the Mongols conducted a population census.

The collection of tribute was monitored by the Baskaks, supported by punitive detachments.

The great devastation caused by Batu, subsequent punitive expeditions, and heavy tribute led to a protracted economic crisis and the decline of the Russian land. During the first 50 years of the yoke, there was not a single city in the principalities of North-Eastern Rus', a number of crafts disappeared in other places, serious demographic changes occurred, the area of ​​settlement of the Old Russian people decreased, and the strong Old Russian principalities fell into decay.

Lecture 10.

The struggle of the peoples of North-Western Rus' against the aggression of Swedish and German feudal lords.

Simultaneously with the Tatar-Mongol invasion of the Russian people in the 13th century. had to wage a fierce fight against the German and Swedish invaders. The lands of Northern Rus' and, in particular, Novgorod attracted invaders. They were not ruined by Batu, and Novgorod was famous for its wealth, since the most important trade route connecting Northern Europe with the countries of the East passed through it.