Structural components of language. Structural components of the language system and branches of linguistics

Linguistics as a science: subject, object of study, place in the system of sciences, meaning

Linguistics(linguistics, linguistics) is the science of language, its social nature and functions, its internal structure, the patterns of its functioning and the historical development and classification of specific languages.

Item. Linguistics studies not only existing (existing or possible in the future) languages, but also human Language in general. Language is not given to the linguist by direct observation; Only facts of speech, or linguistic phenomena, are directly observable, that is, speech acts of speakers of a living language along with their results (texts) or language material (a limited number of written texts in a dead language, which no one uses as the main means of communication).

Object linguistics - language. Human language heterogeneous. Its types are different. The object of linguistics is natural human language. The laws of the structure, development and functioning of language constitute the subject of the science of language. These patterns may be inherent in individual specific languages ​​or their groups. Along with such particular patterns in every language of the world, some general patterns that are inherent in all or most languages ​​of mankind can be revealed. Therefore, the subject of the course “General Linguistics” correlates with such concepts as “particular” and “general” linguistics.

Private linguistics deals with a single language (Russian, English, Uzbek, etc.) or a group of related languages ​​(say, Slavic languages). It can be synchronic, describing the facts of a language at some point in its history (most often - facts modern language), or diachronic (historical), tracing the development of a language over a certain period of time. A type of diachronic linguistics (linguistics) is comparative-historical, which elucidates their historical past by comparing related languages.

General Features human language deals general linguistics. It explores the essence and nature of language, the problem of its origin and general laws its development and functioning, it also develops methods for studying languages. Within the framework of general linguistics, typological linguistics is distinguished, which compares both related and unrelated languages ​​with each other, a comparison aimed at clarifying the general patterns of language. General and, in particular, typological linguistics identifies and formulates linguistic universals, i.e. provisions valid for all languages ​​of the world (absolute universals) or for the vast majority of languages ​​( statistical universals).

There are between 3000-5500 languages ​​in the world. It is impossible to accurately calculate, since there is no specific criterion for determining the number of languages. 500 thousand languages ​​on Earth have been well studied. 1.5 thousand have not been studied.

The separation of languages ​​can be influenced by written expression.

Linguistics is included V circle of sciences about human society. Therefore, it is connected with the humanities (history, literature, ethnography [life culture], dialectology), with the natural sciences (physics [acoustics], physiology) and computational sciences (physics, mathematics), etc.

Objectives and significance linguistics:

Establishing the nature and essence of language

Studying the structure of language

Learning language as a holistic system

Studying the issue of language development

Study of the origin and development of writing

Classification of languages

Selection of research methods: comparative historical, descriptive, comparative, quantitative

Studying the connection between linguistics and other sciences.

Structural Components language systems and branches of linguistics

Language system- this is an integral unity of linguistic units that are in certain relationships and relationships with each other. The very set of regular connections and relationships between linguistic units forms the structure of the language system. Structure is the main property of a language system. It presupposes the division of language as an integral formation into components, their interconnection, interdependence and internal organization. To name the components of a language system, the terms elements, language units, linguistic signs, parts (groups), subsystems are usually used.

There are denominational units of language (phonemes, morphemes), nominative (words, phrases, phraseological units) and communicative (sentences, superphrasal units, periods, texts).

Units of language are closely related to units of speech. The latter realize (objectify) the former (phonemes are realized by sounds, or backgrounds; morphemes - by morphs, allomorphs; words (lexemes) - by word forms (lexes, allolexes); structural schemes of sentences - by utterances). Units of speech are any units that are freely formed in the process of speech from units of language. Their main features are: productivity - free formation in the process of speech; combinatoriality - a complex structure as a result of the free combination of language units; the ability to enter into larger formations (words as part of phrases and sentences; simple sentences as part of complex; sentences form the text).

Elements, units of language and linguistic signs should be distinguished from parts and subsystems of a single language system.

Any grouping of linguistic units between which internal connections are established that differ from the connections between the groupings themselves can be considered as part of the system. Subsystems are thus formed within the system (in vocabulary - lexical-semantic groups, semantic fields; in morphology - subsystems of verb conjugation or declension of names, etc.).

The linguistic units that form a language system can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Hierarchical relationships between homogeneous units of language are excluded; they are inherent only in heterogeneous units (phoneme > morpheme > lexeme (words) > phrase > sentence). Homogeneous units of language exhibit the ability to enter into: a) linear structures, chains and combinations (linear connections of language units are called syntagmatic), and b) certain groups, classes and categories, thereby realizing their paradigmatic properties.

Syntagmatic connections are the relationships of linguistic units by contiguity, their juxtaposition (according to the scheme and... and) and compatibility according to the laws defined for a particular language. According to certain syntagmatic laws, morphemes, word forms, sentence members, parts are combined complex sentence. Syntagmatic restrictions are due to the fact that each unit of language occupies a very definite position in the linear series relative to other units. In this regard, the concept of position of a linguistic unit was introduced. Units occupying the same position in the syntagmatic series form a paradigm (class, category, block, group).

Paradigmatic connections are relationships based on internal similarity, association, or relationships of choice (according to the scheme or... or). All varieties of linguistic units have paradigmatic properties (paradigms of consonant and vowel phonemes, morphemes, words, etc. are distinguished). The most striking example of this kind of relationship can be lexical paradigms, synonyms, antonyms, lexical-semantic groups and fields; in morphology - paradigms of declension and conjugation.

A set of homogeneous language units capable of entering into syntagmatic and paradigmatic connections with each other, but excluding hierarchical relationships, is called a level or tier language structure. Each level corresponds to a basic unit of language. The main levels include: phonological/phonetic (basic unit - phoneme), morphemic (morpheme), lexeme/lexical (lexeme, or word), morphological (grammeme - a class of word forms) and syntactic (syntax, or syntaxeme). Intermediate levels are usually considered: phonomorphemic, or morphonological (phonomorph, or morphoneme), derivatological, or word-formative (derivateme), phraseological (phraseme, or phraseological unit, phraseological unit).

Typical for the language is complex structure interconnected heterogeneous elements. In order to determine which elements are included in the structure of language, let's look at the following example: two Romans argued who would say (or write) a shorter phrase; one said (wrote): Eo rus - I’m going to the village, and the other answered: I - go. This is the shortest statement (and writing) that can be imagined, but at the same time it is a completely complete statement, constituting an entire replica in a given dialogue and, obviously, possessing everything that is characteristic of any statement.

What are these elements of a statement?

1) i is a speech sound (more precisely, a phoneme), i.e. a sound material sign accessible to perception by the ear, or i is a letter, i.e. a graphic material sign that is perceptible to the eye;

2) i is the root of a word (in general, a morpheme), i.e. an element expressing some concept;

3) i is a word (verb in the imperative mood in the singular) naming a certain phenomenon of reality;

4) I is a sentence, i.e. an element containing a message.

Little i, it turns out, contains what makes up a language in general: 1) sounds - phonetics (or letters - graphics), 2) morphemes (roots, suffixes, endings) - morphology, 3) words - vocabulary and 4) sentences - syntax.

Nothing else exists or can exist in language.

Why was such a strange example needed to clarify the question of the structure of language? To make it clear that the differences in the elements of the structure of language are not quantitative, as it might seem if we took a long sentence, broke it down into words, words into morphemes, and morphemes into phonemes. This example eliminates this danger:

All levels of the structure of language represent the “same” i, but taken each time in a special quality.

Thus, the difference in the elements of the structure of language is qualitative, which is determined by the different functions of these elements. What are the functions of these elements?

1.Sounds (phonemes) are material signs of language, and not just audible sounds. Sound signs of language have two functions: 1) perceptual - to be an object of perception and 2) significative - to have the ability to distinguish higher, significant elements of language - morphemes, words, sentences: sweat, bot, mot, that, dot, note, lot, pine, pine, pine, etc.

2. Morphemes can express concepts:

a) root - real (table-), (ground-), (window-), etc. and b) non-root ones of two types: meanings of attributes (-ost), (-without-), (re-) and meanings of relations (-y), (-ish), sitting - sitting, (-a), (-y) table, table, etc.; this semasiological function, the function of expressing concepts. They cannot name morphemes, but they have meaning; (red-) expresses only the concept of a certain color, and you can name something only by turning the morpheme into a word: redness, red, blush, etc.

3. Words can name things and phenomena of reality; this is a nominative function, a naming function; there are words that perform this function in their pure form - these are proper names; ordinary, common nouns combine it with a semasiological function, since they express concepts.

4.Sentences serve to communicate; this is the most important thing in verbal communication, since language is a tool of communication; this function is communicative; since sentences consist of words, in their constituent parts they have both a nominative and semasiological function.

The elements of this structure form a unity in the language, which is easy to understand if you pay attention to their connection: each lower level is potentially the next highest, and, conversely, each higher level, at a minimum, consists of one lower one: thus, a sentence can minimally consist of one word (.Dawn. Frost.); a word - from one morpheme (here, here, metro, hurray); morpheme - from one phoneme (Sh-i, zh-a-t).

Within each circle or tier of the linguistic structure (phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic) there is its own system, since all elements of a given circle act as members of the system.

A system is a unity of homogeneous and interdependent elements. Systems of individual tiers of linguistic structure, interacting with each other, form common system of this language.

Structure and system of language

First, let's figure out what language is and what its functions are.

Language- This si system of signs for conveying information, commons human nature. This is a socially processed and historically variable system that serves as the main means of communication, represented by different forms of existence, each of which has an oral and written form of implementation. But the implementation of the language is already speech.

Language is a system of signs, and a sign, in turn, is a member of a certain sign system.

Language functions:

Cognitive (cognitive). Connects language with human mental activity;

Communicative (facilitating communication). Links words into sentences that convey information.

If language is a system of signs and symbols, then speech is the process of using these signs and symbols. It can either facilitate or hinder communication.

Language system- a set of language elements connected to each other by certain relationships, forming a certain unity and integrity. Each component of the language system exists in opposition to other elements, which gives it significance. The idea of ​​a language system includes the concepts of language levels, language units, paradigmatics and syntagmatics, linguistic sign, synchrony and diachrony.

The concepts of structure and system are very closely related and are often used as synonyms. Nevertheless, it is customary to distinguish between them: the structure represents the unity of heterogeneous elements within the whole, and the system is the unity of homogeneous interdependent elements.

Language has an internal order, an organization of its parts into a single whole. Consequently, systematicity and structure characterize the language and its units as a single whole from different sides. The system of a language is an inventory of its units, combined into categories and tiers according to standard relationships; the structure of language is formed by the relationships between tiers and parts of units; Consequently, the structure of a language is only one of the signs of a language system. A unit of language, a category of language, a tier of language, linguistic relations - these concepts do not coincide, although they are all important for revealing the concept of a language system.

Units of language are its permanent elements, differing from each other in purpose, structure and place in the language system. According to their purpose, language units are divided into nominative, communicative and drill. The main nominative unit is the word (lexeme), the communicative unit is the sentence. The structural units of language serve as a means of constructing and formalizing nominative and communicative units; building units are phonemes and morphemes, as well as forms of words and forms of phrases.

Language relations- these are the relationships that are found between tiers and categories, units and their parts. The main types of relationships are paradigmatic and syntagmatic, associative and hyponymic (hierarchical). Paradigmatic relations are those relations that unite language units into groups, categories, categories. For example, the system of consonants, the system of declension, and the synonymic series rely on paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations unite units of language in their simultaneous sequence. Words as a set of morphemes and syllables, phrases and analytical names, sentences (as a set of sentence members) and complex sentences are built on syntagmatic relationships. Associative relations arise on the basis of coincidence in time of representations, i.e. images of reality. There are three types of associations: by contiguity, by similarity and by contrast. These types of associations play a big role in the use of epithets and metaphors, in the formation of figurative meanings of words. Hierarchical relations are relations between heterogeneous elements, their subordination to each other as general and particular, generic and specific, higher and lower. Hierarchical relationships are observed between units of different tiers of language, between words and forms when they are combined into parts of speech, between syntactic units when they are combined into syntactic types. Associative, hierarchical and paradigmatic relations are opposed to syntagmatic ones in that the latter is linear.

There are also sound units (phonemes), which have the functions of perception and discrimination. Thanks to the first, we can perceive speech; thanks to the second, linguistic units of a more complex nature differ from each other: house-that, there-so.

Morphemes– represent the smallest meaningful units of language. They have a so-called semasiological function, that is, they express concepts of a different nature: real or root.

A morpheme is a two-sided unit, one side is semantic, that is, the content (signified), the second is a phonetic or graphic form, that is, the expression (signifier).

Every modified word has two parts: warp And inflectional formant. The stem is a constant part of a word, uniform in all its word forms and expressing it lexical meaning. An inflectional formant is a variable part of a word that expresses its inflectional morphological meanings; in different word forms of the same word, inflectional formants are different: whitish, whitish, whitish, whitish etc., where whitish- the basis of the word, and -y, -y, -y, -y- inflectional formants. Inflectional formants can consist of one or two morphemes: for example, in word forms whitish, transported, brought.

Morphemes differ depending on their place in the word and the nature of the meaning they express. The central morpheme, which stands out as part of the stem and contains the main component of the lexical meaning of the word, is called root. The root is necessarily present in every word (in each of its word forms) and can completely coincide with the stem. If the stem consists of only one morpheme ( hand, white, bear, suddenly), then this morpheme represents a root.

Other morphemes are called affixes, or service morphemes. Affixes are not present in every word (word form) and contain additional, auxiliary meaning. The affix never completely coincides with the stem. For example, in the word form whitish white- root (it coincides with the base in the word white), A -ovat- And th- affixes; at the same time, standing out as part of the base, the affix -ovat- not a single word matches the base.

Note. The exception is some affixes that coincide with function words, for example without-, on-, from-, not-, neither-; in prepositions without, on, from, particles no, neither the same morphemes act as roots and are equal to the base. This is due to the specificity of function words, which are similar in function to affixes.

The next unit of language is words, naming objects and phenomena of reality, that is, having nominative function. In its pure form, it is inherent in proper names, while common nouns combine it with semasiological.

Word(an unambiguous axiomatic designation in vocabulary) is one of the main structural units of language, which serves to name objects, their qualities and characteristics, their interactions, as well as naming imaginary and abstract concepts created by the human imagination.

In search of the structure of words, modern science has formed an independent branch called morphology. The entire set of words is divided into two types:

Significant - denoting certain concepts,

Servicing - used to connect words with each other.

According to their grammatical meaning, words are classified as parts of speech:

Significant words - noun, adjective, verb, adverb;

Subclasses - numerals, pronouns and interjections;

Function words - conjunction, preposition, particle, article, etc.

According to the lexical meaning, words are classified according to an increasing list as lexicology, semantics, the study of word formation, etymology and stylistics develop.

From a historical point of view, the words that make up the vocabulary of a language usually have a variety of origins, and in this variety of origins, a combination of the subjects of terminology and etymology becomes especially promising for fundamental research, which can restore the true origin of significant words.

Offer- the basic unit of coherent speech, characterized by certain semantic) and structural (choice, arrangement and connection of grammatical forms of words combined in a phrase, the nature of intonation) features. The doctrine of the sentence occupies a central place in syntax.

I. According to the purpose of the statement

1. Narrative. The other bank of the river, low and level, stretched somewhere into the distance towards the green walls of the forest.

2. Questions. Do you know Ukrainian night?

1. Incentive. Eat bread and salt, but cut the truth.

II. By intonation

1. Exclamation marks. How nice it is in the forest!

2. Non-exclamatory. On the opposite bank, like gigantic sentries, stood mighty cedars.

III. By presence of main members

1. Two-part. (The grammatical basis of two-part sentences consists of two main members - the subject and the predicate). For example: Whitebirch under my windowcovered herself up snow like silver.

2. One-piece. (The grammatical basis of one-part sentences consists of one main member - subject or predicate). For example: Fastit's getting dark .

IV. By the presence or absence of minor members

1. Uncommon. (Only the main members are included). Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling...

2. Common. (In addition to the main members, they also have secondary members.) The blue sky opened between the clouds on an April day.

V. By the presence or absence of the necessary members of the proposal

1. Complete. (In such sentences all members of the sentence are present). A thundercloud was approaching from the west.

2. Incomplete. (In such sentences, any member is missing - main or secondary, but it is easily restored in meaning). My brother went to the library, and I went to the pool.

VI. By structure

1. Simple. To the left of the road we saw a pit filled to the top with water.

2. Complex.

Connections linguistic units are defined as private the case of their relationships, suggesting a direct dependence of linguistic units. In this case, a change in one unit leads to a change in others. The structure of the language appears as law connections between these elements and units within a certain system or subsystem of language, which presupposes the presence, along with dynamism And variability, and such an important property of the structure as sustainability. Thus, sustainability And variability– two dialectically related and “opposing tendencies of linguistic structure. In the process of functioning and development of the language system, its structure manifests itself as a form of expression sustainability, A function as a form of expression variability. The structure of language, due to its stability and variability, acts as the second most important system-forming factor.

The third factor in the formation of a language system (subsystem) is properties a linguistic unit, namely: the manifestation of its nature, internal content through its relationship to other units. The properties of linguistic units are sometimes considered as functions of the subsystem (level) formed by them. Stand out internally e and external properties of linguistic units. Internal ones depend on the connections and relationships established between homogeneous units of one subsystem or between units of different subsystems, while external ones depend on the connections and relationships of linguistic units to reality, to the surrounding world, to the thoughts and feelings of a person. These are such properties of linguistic units as the ability name, designate, indicate etc. Internal and external properties are called subsystem (or level) functions.

What is the structure of a language system? To answer this question, it is necessary to reveal the essence of those connections and relationships thanks to which linguistic units form a system. These connections and relationships are located along two system-forming axes of the linguistic structure: horizontal(reflecting the property of linguistic units to be combined with each other, thereby performing the communicative function of language); vertical(reflecting the connection of linguistic units with the neurophysiological mechanism of the brain as the source of its existence). The vertical axis of linguistic structure is paradigmatic relations, and horizontal – relations syntagmatic, designed to activate two fundamental mechanisms of speech activity: nomination And predication. Syntagmatic All types of relationships between linguistic units in a speech chain are called. They implement the communicative function of language. Paradigmatic are called associative-semantic relations of homogeneous units, as a result of which linguistic units are combined into classes, groups, categories, that is, into paradigms. This includes variants of the same language unit, synonymous series, antonymic pairs, lexical-semantic groups and semantic fields, etc. Syntagmatics and paradigmatics characterize the internal structure of language as the most important system-forming factors that presuppose and mutually condition each other. By the nature of syntagmatics and paradigmatics, linguistic units are combined into super-paradigms, including homogeneous units of the same degree of complexity. They form levels (tiers) in the language: the level of phonemes, the level of morphemes, the level of lexemes, etc. This multi-level structure of language corresponds to the structure of the brain, which “controls” the mental mechanisms of speech communication.

Thus, a set of interconnected and interdependent units of the same order forms a system that is part of the structure of the language as a whole. These systems form tiers, or levels of language, the totality of which gives its structure (system of systems). Therefore, language as a whole is characterized as structural-system education.

LANGUAGE AS SYSTEM AND STRUCTURE

1. The concept of a system. Language system.

2. The concept of structure. Language structure.

3. Constitutive and non-constitutive units of language. Selection problem
linguistic units.

4. Levels of language structure and their units.

The concept of a system. Language system.

A systematic approach to the study of reality is one of the fundamental methodological principles modern science. System is a set of elements that is characterized by: a) regular relationships between the elements; b) integrity as a result of this interaction; c) autonomy of behavior and d) non-summarity (non-additivity) of the properties of the system in relation to the properties of its constituent elements. New qualities of the system, in comparison with the qualities and properties of its constituent elements, are created by the transformation of the elements in their interaction. In turn, the actual position of an element, its essence, can be understood only by considering it in the system, in connection with other elements of the system. Therefore, a systematic approach contributes to an objective reflection and knowledge of the phenomena of reality.

Scientific study of reality in in a broad sense words (nature and man) lies in the discovery of laws and patterns. This cannot be done without systematizing the facts being studied, that is, without establishing natural connections between them. Therefore, already the earliest experiments in the scientific study of language were attempts to systematize linguistic facts on one basis or another.

Since its formation, traditional grammar has in one way or another dealt with the systemic relations of distinguished units, as a result of which

were their classifications. Such traditional systemic connections include, for example, the division of words into parts of speech; identification of certain categories within parts of speech (types of verbs, types of conjugation; gender, types of declension of nouns). The idea that language is not a simple set of means of communication was expressed even ancient Indian researchers Yaski, Panini, ancient Greek philosophers of the Alexandrian school Aristarchus, Dionysius the Thracian.

Wilhelm von Humboldt, Fyodor Ivanovich Buslaev, Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya, Ivan A. lexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay emphasized the internal systemic organization of language. A major role in the development of the doctrine of the language system was played by the ideas of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay on the role of relations in language, on the distinction between statics and dynamics, the external and internal history of language, and his identification of the most common units language systems - phonemes, morphemes, graphemes, syntagmes.

But a systematic approach to language became a generally accepted methodological requirement after the publication of the “Course of General Linguistics” F. de Saussure. Saussure's merit is seen not in the fact that he discovered the systematic organization of language, but in the fact that he elevated systematicity to a fundamental principle scientific research. In the teachings of F. de Saussure, the system of language is considered as a system of signs.

Its internal structure is studied by internal linguistics, and the external functioning of the language system is studied by external linguistics. Saussure compares language to a game of chess. The main thing in the game is systemic relationships, the functions that the pieces perform. If you lose a figure, for example a horse, you can replace it with any other object - a matchbox, a cork, a piece of sealing wax. This will not change the game; the material itself plays a secondary role. A similar thing can be seen in language. The main thing is the role of the sign in the system, and not its material essence, which can be changed or even replaced by another, for example, writing.

In Saussure's concept of systematic language, the concept of significance occupies an important place. A linguistic sign, for example a word, has not only meaning, but also significance, which a sign acquires as a result of its relationships with other signs of the language. The significance of a linguistic unit is determined by its place in the language system, its connections with other units in this system. For example, the significance of a “three” will be different in three-point, five-point, and ten-point grading systems. The significance of the plural will be greater in a language with two forms of number - singular and plural - than in a language with singular, plural and dual. The significance of past tense forms will vary in languages ​​that have different quantities such forms. In modern Russian, the importance of past tense forms is greater compared to Old Russian, since it has only one past tense form.

The concepts of systematicity of Saussure and Baudouin served as the methodological basis for the formation of structural trends in modern linguistics. Extreme absolutization of the relations of linguistic units is characteristic of Copenhagen Linguistic School(Louis Hjelmslev, Viggo Brendal). In the views of orthodox representatives of this direction, relationships and connections between units of language are abstracted from material carriers - sounds. The main thing is the system of relations, while their material substrates are a secondary and even accidental thing. Language is a network of relationships, a relational frame or construct, indifferent to the nature of its material expression.

In studies of the late 20th - early 21st centuries Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, Vladimir Grigorievich Gak, Victoria Nikolaevna Yartseva the non-rigidity, asymmetry of the language system, and the unequal degree of systematicity of its various sections are emphasized. Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov, Tatyana Vyacheslavovna Bulygina identify differences between language and other semiotic systems. Mikhail Viktorovich Panov explores the “antinomies of development” of the language system, Georgy Vladimirovich Stepanov, Alexander Davidovich Schweitzer, Boris Andreevich Uspensky- patterns of functioning of the language system in society, Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin- interaction of the language system with brain activity.

There are different types systems Language is a secondary complex material-ideal system. The language system has characteristic features, some of which are still the subject of controversy:

1) in lately The position that language is a sign system has become generally accepted. The transmission of information is carried out by the deliberate activity of people, therefore language is a secondary semiotic system.

2) linguists are unanimous in the opinion that the language system unites heterogeneous components (phonemes, morphemes, words, etc.) and therefore belongs to the category complex systems.

3) the question of the sphere of existence of language, the materiality or ideality of a sign raises heated debates. Scientists who call language an ideal system proceed from the fact that language as a system is encoded in the human brain in the form of ideal formations: both acoustic images and the meanings associated with them. However, this kind of code is not a means of communication, but a linguistic memory. Linguistic memory is the most important, but not the only condition for the existence of language as a means of communication. The second condition is the material embodiment of the ideal side of language in material units. The idea of ​​the unity of the material and the ideal in language was most consistently developed in the works of Alexander Ivanovich Smirnitsky.

4) representatives of the structural direction consider the language system as closed, rigid and uniquely conditioned. This raises objections from adherents of comparative historical linguistics. If comparativists recognize language as a system, then only as a holistic, dynamic, open and self-organizing system. This understanding of the language system is dominant in Russian linguistics. It satisfies both traditional and new directions in the science of language.

The language system is formed by the following factors:

1) the presence of minimal, further indivisible components. The components of a language system are called elements and units of language. As components of language units, language elements are not independent; they express only some properties of the language system. Language units, on the contrary, possess all the essential features of a language system and, as integral formations, are characterized by relative independence.

2) presence of structure. The structure due to its stability (statics) and
variability (dynamics) is the second most important system-forming factor in language.

3) the third factor in the formation of a language system is the properties of the language
units, which mean the manifestation of its nature, internal
content through relationships to other units. Internal
(own) and external properties of linguistic units. Internal properties
depend on internal connections and relationships established between
homogeneous units. External properties depend on external connections and
relations of linguistic units (for example, their relations to reality, to
thoughts and feelings of a person). These are the properties of naming something, designating,
indicate, express, distinguish, represent, influence.

System–a set of elements and the relationships into which these elements enter. Systems: natural and arts., technical., primary and secondary, complex and simple. Language system = language units + structure. A language system is a set of linguistic units and those relations, which these units can enter into with each other. System language complex system, because is a system of systems, consists of levels that are themselves systems. Simple syst., because units are of the same type.

Structure– themselves relationship into which these elements enter. That is, the structure is part of the system. Structure is characteristic of all sciences. (biology, chemistry, linguistics)

20-30 – the emergence of a new direction in linguistics – structuralism. Structuralists study only the structure of language. There is Prague, London, Danish and American structuralism.

Conditions for the system:

The system must have many elements(10^8, 10^10). The language is one of the most complex systems in terms of the number of characters.

The system must be holistic. The integrity of the system is ensured by communications.

Thus, the system is units + structure.

Shcherba came up with a phrase with the so-called “ pure relations" (structure only) between units. This phrase uses non-existent words in order to abstract from their meanings and thus show only relationship between them. " Glokaykuzdra stekokudlanula bokra and kurdyachit bokrenok"

« Structures are stable; they define the language system." -- F. de Saussure. Saussure also compared the language system to a chessboard. It is determined not by the material, but by the structure.

To give full description language systems must be described:

language inventory (language units) is a descriptive approach

connections between units - structural approach

functions that this system performs - functional approach

There are some other approaches to describing the system:

The stratification approach is how different parts of the system are related, by levels.

Dynamic approach - how the transition from language to speech occurs.

The semiotic approach is close to the descriptive approach.

Language is a dynamic, open system, never completely “correct,” but always striving for it.

The systematic nature of language is expressed not only at the level of meaning (plan of content), but also at all other levels (plan of expression): at the phonetic, lexical, grammatical levels. From this we can conclude that language is a system of systems.

The term " language level"appeared in the 60s. It was introduced by a French linguist Benveniste.

Level - part of a language system that unites units of the same type (homogeneous) and the same name for a given level. Units of each level perform their own functions in the language. The level-forming element is the unit itself (its presence). There is a unit, which means there is a level

There is no stylistic level, because there is no corresponding unit.

There are two types of levels: basic and intermediate (additional)

Main levels 4:

Phonetic

Morphological

Lexical

Syntactic

Each level has its own units. This unit exists in two varieties: as a unit of language and as a unit of speech. What's the difference? Linguistic units are an abstraction, a certain model, it cannot be pronounced. A linguistic unit is potential because it has countless speech analogues. However, it has its own speech analogue , i.e. speech unit - a specific speech practice with meaning, in living speech.

On phonologicalphoneme(signaling function), and its speech version is background/allophone/sound. The phoneme performs meaningful function, she itself doesn't matter.

On morphological level the unit of language is morpheme (string function), and its speech version is morph/allomorph.

Lexical level - token(nominative function) Speech unit – word.

Syntactic level -- offer(communicative function), speech unit – phrase or saying.

Some linguists distinguish 2 more levels:

extremely low level (level of distinctive/differential features of a phoneme – merisms(softness/hardness))

extremely high level (text level. Text does not exist as a linguistic unit. The text exists only as a speech unit)

Intermediate levels:

morphophonological level (morphophoneme is an undermorpheme, it lacks meaning. For example, connective o and e)

phraseological (phraseological unit)

derivational (derived word)

What is the difference between main levels and additional levels? For units of basic levels we can dismember the entire text without leaving any trace, (the principle of non-residue divisibility of the text) but not into intermediate level units.

Relationships between units. Language structure. Bertolanffy – structure – relationships into which units enter. In a language, not all units interact with each other. Structure - those relationships in which they can enter.

There are two types of relationships:

interspecific (hierarchical) – between units of different levels.

Intraspecific. They have two varieties:

Syntagmatic - relations linear and horizontal. Show how units of the same level are connected in a speech chain. -- paradigmatic – (Saussure – associative; the term “paradigmatic” was introduced by Elmslev) – relations between units of the same level, which can occur in the same context. Sometimes units can meet in the same position, i.e. in the same environment. (I am sending to my father, I am sending a letter, I am sending by mail - the words “by mail”, “to father”, “letter” form a paradigm, since they can occur in the same context). Sometimes units form a paradigm because they cannot stand in one position. (I’m walking - you’re walking - he’s walking. I’m walking, walking, walking - they require different subjects and form a paradigm) Paradigm - vertical relationships. Violation of paradigmatic connections may indicate the presence of mental disorders.

Language is a system of signs. Science that studies signs, called semiotics(Greek “semios” - sign). Everything that surrounds us - sign systems. Sign language, Braille, Morse language, gong language, sweet language, musical signs, animal language - all these are language systems. Human language is also one of the sign systems.

Language systems are: - artificial (for example, notes) - natural sign systems (human language)

Human language is a special system of signs, having properties that distinguish it from all other sign systems. Human language - primary sign system. All other characters systems are secondary. The primacy of people language is manifested in the fact that everything other systems or arose from human language, or they can be explained using human language. Human language arises and develops spontaneously for thousands of years. In human language approximately 50% redundancy. Also in human language there is a lot inaccuracies. Other language systems do not have such inaccuracies and redundancies. Also human language - open system , while other systems are closed: human language is always replenished with new elements, while other sign systems are not replenished. (there are 7 notes in total, you cannot enter the 8th). Human language is a system with which you can describe any content => versatility.Language – public, it belongs to everyone. The remaining sign systems are known only to a limited circle of specialists. The language system has emotionality.