Novikov presentation of the methodology of scientific research. The concept of the method and methodology of scientific research

The term "methodology" comes from the Greek "methodos" - way, way, and "logos" - concept, idea.

There are a number of generalized definitions of the concept "methodology":

1) this is the doctrine of the principles, forms, methods of scientific knowledge or research;

2) it is the science of methods of cognition and methods scientific research, that is, the science of science;

3) science, which determines the general direction of the development of research, its goals, boundaries, principles; scientific way establishing the basis, emphasizing the meaning of concepts;

4) the field of science that studies general and particular methods of scientific research, as well as the principles of approach to various types of objects of reality and to different classes of scientific problems.

object methodology is the process of scientific research in its entirety, that is, all scientific and cognitive activity.

In the definitions given above, methodology is associated only with the process of cognition. According to some scientists (Z.I. Ravkin, N.D. Nikandrov), it is important to have a clear understanding of how the methodology is directed not only to cognition, but also to the transformation of reality.

From this point of view, the activity definition of methodology is given in the philosophical encyclopedic dictionary of 1983 edition. This definition interprets methodology as a system of principles and methods for organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system.

Thus, there are, in turn, different methodological approaches to understanding methodology: 1) defining it only from theoretical positions; 2) definition, taking into account the unity of its theoretical and practical-effective essence.

It should be noted that all these definitions and positions do not contradict each other, but complement each other.

General scientific methodology indirectly, through theories, concepts of a particular branch of science, influences the choice of a specialist in any profession of his professional methodological position. Proceeding from this, each branch of science formulates its own specific definition of methodology, the basis of which is a general scientific definition. For example, the methodology of pedagogy is defined as a system of knowledge based on the general methodology of science about the starting points of pedagogical theory, about the principles of approach to the consideration of pedagogical phenomena and research methods, as well as ways to introduce the acquired knowledge into the practice of upbringing, training and education (Kodzhaspirova G.M. etc. Pedagogical Dictionary).

The question of the methodology of pedagogy has always caused scientific controversy.

After many years of discussions, discussions and specific research developments, such an understanding of the methodology of pedagogy was formed, formulated by V. V. Kraevsky: the methodology of pedagogy is a system of knowledge about the foundations and structure of pedagogical theory, about the principles of approach and methods of obtaining knowledge that reflect pedagogical reality, as well as a system of activities to obtain such knowledge and substantiate programs, logic, methods and evaluate the quality of research work.

The subject of the methodology of pedagogy, as noted by Kraevsky, acts as a relationship between pedagogical reality and its reflection in pedagogical science.

Highlighting two functions of the methodology - descriptive, i.e. descriptive, which also involves the formation of a theoretical description of the object, and prescriptive, or normative, which creates guidelines for the work of the researcher, is determined, according to the scientist, by distinguishing between two types of activity - methodological research and methodological support. The first type involves a system of knowledge, the second - a system of research activities.

The presence of these two functions also determines the division of the foundations of the methodology into two groups - the foundations of theory and normative.

The theoretical ones are: definition of methodology; a general description of the methodology of science, its levels (general philosophical, general scientific, concrete scientific, the level of research methods and techniques); methodology as a system of knowledge and a system of activity, sources of methodological support for research activities in the field of pedagogy; object and subject of methodological analysis in the field of pedagogy.

Regulatory bases cover the following range of issues: scientific knowledge in pedagogy among other forms of spiritual exploration of the world, which include spontaneous empirical knowledge and artistic and figurative reflection of reality; determination of the belonging of work in the field of pedagogy to science; the nature of goal-setting, the allocation of a special object of study, the use of special means of cognition, the unambiguity of concepts; typology of pedagogical research; research characteristics by which a scientist can compare and evaluate his scientific work: problem, topic, relevance, object, subject, goal, tasks, hypothesis, protected provisions, research novelty, significance for science, significance for practice; the logic of pedagogical research; system of pedagogical scientific disciplines, the relationship between them.

The methodology of pedagogy, according to the scientist, acts as a relatively independent field of knowledge and activity, subject to its own logic of development and reflecting the stages of the evolution of pedagogy.

In science, the existence of a hierarchy of methodologies is recognized, and the following stand out as such:

General scientific methodology (materialistic dialectics, epistemology (theory of knowledge), logic;

Private scientific methodology (methodology of pedagogy, methodology of history, methodology of natural science, mathematics, etc.);

Subject-thematic (methodology of didactics, methodology of the content of education, methodology of mathematical training of schoolchildren, etc.).

We believe that such a division is not entirely correct. What is called general scientific methodology, i.e. materialistic dialectics, epistemology and formal logic are more correctly designated as the methodological foundations of any science. Hence the need to single out a particular scientific methodology, from our point of view, disappears. Instead, it is more correct to designate “methodological problems”, “methodological postulates” of a particular branch of science, for which the above-mentioned sections of philosophy, as well as logical forms and logical laws of knowledge, are the methodological basis.

In addition, the above-mentioned traditional division (singling out) of methodologies does not comply with the logical rules of classification, for example, the juxtaposition of its nomenclature. The concepts of "general scientific methodology" and "particular scientific methodology" are not in a row, since the second is covered by the first. And the practice of studying the issue of the methodology of certain academic subjects indicates that their specific methodological problems are considered in unity with general scientific ones, i.e. begins with understanding the general methodological foundations (dialectics, epistemology, laws of logic).

This can be confirmed, for example, by the selection of A.I. Kochetov of three aspects of the methodology of pedagogy: 1) the general methodology of any science, the leading ideas of which are the philosophical concepts of scientific knowledge, the laws of dialectics, the dialectical method of studying the real world and the theory of scientific creativity; 2) the leading ideas of pedagogy and psychology itself, on which the researcher and teacher-practitioner rely; 3) postulates and axioms of a specific pedagogical problem.

We believe that it is necessary to clarify and supplement aspects of the general methodology of scientific research and education.

So, the aspects of the methodology of scientific research and education include:

1) general scientific methodological basis any science, the leading ideas of which are the philosophical concepts of scientific knowledge, the laws of dialectics, the dialectical method of studying reality, the real world, in other words, materialistic dialectics, epistemology (theory of knowledge), logic and the theory of scientific creativity;

2) methodological approaches to scientific research and education;

3) methodological problems specific branch of science;

4) methodological postulates(axioms) of a particular branch of science;

5) methodological postulates specific scientific problem, which guides the researcher in scientific research and practical activities.

The basis of this division is the principle of ascent from the general to the particular.

Thus, speaking about the methodology of scientific research, we single out such concepts as methodological basics, methodological approaches, methodological Problems, methodological postulates. Any scientific discipline, any scientific research, any academic subject, the content of which is pedagogically adapted scientific knowledge, as well as education in the unity of content and procedural aspects, is based on all these methodological aspects.

These methodological aspects will be discussed below. But first, let's clarify the concepts the basis(base), approach (position), problem, postulate.

In some philosophical dictionaries, the basis is understood as a judgment or idea, from the reality of which the validity of another judgment or idea (consequence) necessarily follows; logical basis or basis of knowledge. The real foundation differs from it, which makes the idea dependent on the experimental content or on metaphysical reality.

Foundation and consequence are philosophical categories that express the connection between objects, in which one phenomenon (foundation) necessarily gives rise to another (consequence). Reason and effect fix one side in the relationship of cause and effect, namely, that one phenomenon causes another and do not reveal the dialectics of cause and effect, causality as a complex form of interaction. Each phenomenon gives rise to a consequence, this consequence in turn becomes a basis and generates another action, etc. For example, the law of sufficient reason for everything that exists establishes a basis from which the absence or presence of any phenomenon can be legitimately deduced.

Thus, if the general philosophical provisions, the provisions of dialectics, the theory of knowledge (epistemology), are traditionally the methodological basis (or basis) of scientific research, even if they are not explicitly indicated in the introduction of the dissertation, but are implied, then the ways, methods, conditions for solving the problem posed in the study problems and proofs of the hypothesis become a consequence of this foundation.

concept "an approach" in combination with the concept of "methodological" can be interpreted as a methodological direction, as a methodological position (from the Latin Position - position, statement; point of view), which is a theoretical new formation in relation to traditional methodological foundations. If the methodological foundations of scientific research and education, even if they are not explicitly indicated by the author of the research, remain stable, necessary, invariant for research in any branch of science, then methodological approaches appear in the process of science development, some of them become obsolete, new ones arise, sometimes contradictory before. existing.

E. G. Yudin defines the concept of "approach" as a fundamental methodological orientation of the study, as the point of view from which the object of study is considered (the method of defining the object), as a concept or principle that guides the overall strategy of the study.

There are the following approaches:

1) system-structural approach;

2) synergetic approach;

3) axiological approach;

4) anthropological approach;

5) hermeneutic approach;

6) phenomenological approach;

7) humanistic approach;

8) cultural approach;

9) esoteric approach (esoteric paradigm).

Problem(from the Greek problema - task, task) - a theoretical or practical issue that needs to be resolved.

Methodological problems are such problems, the formulation and solution of which are necessary for a reasonable formulation and solution of another problem - methodological, theoretical and practical. This definition reflects only the outer side of the issue. Therefore, given that any problem is a known contradiction, the methodological problem can be, as an addition to the above, defined as a contradiction between the object of cognition (for example, pedagogical) and transformation and the method of such cognition and transformation.

N. D. Nikandrov distinguishes three groups of methodological problems of pedagogy of education:

The first group of problems refers to the development of the education system, these are such problems as the social order of society to the education system; integration of the educational influences of the school and the environment; computerization in the education system and pedagogical science; forecasting the development of the education system and pedagogical science in their relationship, the problem of a single level of general secondary education, etc.

second group methodological problems is a large complex problem - the rationale for the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual as a pedagogical category, which involves the solution of more particular both methodological and theoretical problems: the comprehensive development of the individual as a universal goal and ideal of education and training, and education in general; dialectic of the relationship between general and vocational education in comprehensive development personality; comprehensive development of personality in ontogenesis and in educational institutions of various types, etc.

The third major block of problems– methodological problems of the development of pedagogical science. It includes such problems as: pedagogy in the system of modern scientific knowledge; interaction of pedagogical science and pedagogical practice; laws and patterns of pedagogy, their system and identification; the problem of defining concepts and categories of pedagogy; the problem of classification of teaching methods; improvement of methods, methodology and organization of pedagogical research; the problem of integration in pedagogy of the achievements of other sciences; the problem of the relationship between general and particular dialectics, etc.

Postulate(from Latin postulatum - requirement) - a requirement, an assumption, a provision that is really necessary, which does not need strict proof, but must be done with weight and justification, based on facts or on the basis of systematic or practical explanations; position accepted in science as a starting position without evidence.

Among the main methodological postulates Philosophy and world pedagogy scientists include the following:

1) upbringing is conditioned by the very nature of a person; in order to become a person, a person, long-term upbringing and self-education is necessary;

2) upbringing as a readiness for life implies the survival of the individual, and survival alone is impossible, therefore, it is necessary to educate collectivity, sociality, humanity, philanthropy, the ability to cooperate, democracy, compromise, etc. Hence, the culture of communication and behavior is the leading component of a person's upbringing;

3) a person is a part of nature, its typical representative in many respects, therefore it is important to observe the principle of conformity to nature in education; the principle of conformity to nature is not just the construction of a pedagogical system focused on the patterns of age-related development of the body and psyche, it is also learning through real life, constant communication and interaction with nature, the accumulation of experience in enriching and preserving it, in a word - this is noospheric education;

4) The 20th century has changed the type of cultural and historical heritage, the era of dissected knowledge has ended, the integration of education is born, designed to educate a person of the future, moreover, focused on dangers and difficulties, and not on romance and dreams, fantasy and dreams of a beautiful tomorrow;

5) everything in society serves, should serve education: economics, culture, politics, private life. Society is pedagogized as a whole and forever. Experience shows that where the production of spiritual values ​​is ahead of the production of material values, the maximum economic take-off is possible;

6) the individual acts as an object and subject of the historical process, social relations, activity and education. It is characterized by a natural basis (heredity), a social essence (upbringing) and the highest adaptability to a changing world (activity). Man is an active self-regulating and self-developing system. Education plays a decisive role, since the use of all internal factors and coordination, the interconnection of external conditions depends on it;

7) the development of the body and psyche, self-development and self-improvement of the individual act as internal factors in the formation of the individual, and the natural and social environment, the activity of the individual in the outside world - as the main conditions for this process;

8) education and science are useless or harmful if they do not serve morality. The value of education is not in the amount of learned information (this is information systems which you just need to be able to use), but in the development of human spirituality, including culture, spiritual values ​​and moral ideals.

In any science, as well as in education, methodology performs a number of specific functions: regulation, prescription, goal setting, regulation, orientation. In addition to them, some scientists distinguish reflective, cognitive, critical-evaluative functions. All these functions as a whole provide a rationale for scientific activity.

Until recently, in the methodology of pedagogical science, these functions were presented in the philosophical, ideological and epistemological justification of education only from the standpoint of materialistic dialectics and Marxist-Leninist interpretation, which was considered the only true, unshakable methodology, i.e. the rigid laws of classical exact science were transferred, as noted by E.V. Bondarevskaya and Kulnevich, on pedagogical science.

There is no doubt that pedagogy and education, like any other phenomena, cannot exist without a certain philosophical normative base. But, as the above-mentioned scientists rightly assert, the inhibition of the development of science, and behind it the practice, and above all education, occurs when the philosophical foundation is proclaimed absolute, unchanged. Then, from the means of achieving the goal, the fundamental proposition acquires signs of an end in itself.

Method- a set of rules, techniques, operations of practical or theoretical development of reality. It serves to obtain and substantiate objectively true knowledge.

The nature of the method is determined by many factors:

The subject of research

The degree of generality of the tasks set,

accumulated experience,

The level of development of scientific knowledge, etc.

Methods that are suitable for one area of ​​scientific research are unsuitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, many outstanding achievements in science are the result of the transfer and use of methods that have proven themselves in other areas of research. Thus, on the basis of the applied methods, opposite processes of differentiation and integration of sciences take place.

The method of scientific research is a way of knowing objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods are distinguished:

1. Empirical

2. Theoretical

3. Metatheoretical levels.

The empirical level methods include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.

The methods of the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutical, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for a particular science, area of ​​scientific knowledge.

From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research. Research technique is understood as a set special tricks for the use of a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

A technique is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

For example, under the method economic research understand the system of methods, techniques, means of collecting, processing, analyzing and evaluating information about economic phenomena, their causes and conditions.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology.

However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

The doctrine of methods - methodology . It seeks to streamline, systematize methods, establish the suitability of their application in various fields, answer the question of what kind of conditions, means and actions are necessary and sufficient for the realization of certain scientific goals.

Variety of species human activity conditions the use various methods, which can be classified in a variety of ways. In scientific knowledge, general and specific methods, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, etc. are used.

At present, it has become obvious that the system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond it and certainly include the sphere of practice in its orbit. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.

As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for their division into groups. So, depending on the role of place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can single out formal and substantive methods, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation, etc.

There are also quality and quantitative methods, uniquely deterministic and probabilistic, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative, etc.

To the number characteristic features scientific method (whatever type it belongs to) most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristic, necessity, specificity, etc.

The methodology of science develops a multi-level concept of methodological knowledge, which distributes all methods of scientific knowledge according to the degree of generality and scope.

With this approach, 5 main groups of methods can be distinguished:

1. Philosophical Methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. In essence, each philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a kind of way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two named. They also include such methods as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.

2. General scientific approaches and research methods which have been widely developed and applied in science. They act as a kind of "intermediate" methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.

General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as “information”, “model”, “structure”, “function”, “system”, “element”, “optimality”, “probability”, etc.

The characteristic features of general scientific concepts are, firstly, the "fusion" in their content of individual properties, attributes, concepts of a number of particular sciences and philosophical categories. Secondly, the possibility (unlike the latter) of their formalization, refinement by means of mathematical theory, symbolic logic.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.

General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.

3. Private scientific methods - a set of methods, principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science, corresponding to a given basic form of the movement of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences and humanities.

4. Disciplinary methods - a system of techniques used in a particular scientific discipline that is part of some branch of science or that arose at the intersection of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.

5. Interdisciplinary research methods- a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods (arising as a result of a combination of elements various levels methodology), aimed mainly at the intersection of scientific disciplines. These methods are widely used in the implementation of complex scientific programs.

Thus, methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles different levels, scope, focus, heuristic possibilities, contents, structures, etc.

The scientific method is a set of basic methods for obtaining new knowledge and methods for solving problems within the framework of any science. The method includes ways to study phenomena, systematization, correction of new and previously acquired knowledge.

The structure of the method contains three independent components (aspects):

conceptual component - ideas about one of possible forms the object under study;

operational component - prescriptions, norms, rules, principles that regulate the cognitive activity of the subject;

the logical component is the rules for fixing the results of the interaction between the object and the means of cognition.

An important side of the scientific method, its integral part for any science, is the requirement of objectivity, excluding the subjective interpretation of the results. Any statements should not be taken on faith, even if they come from reputable scientists. To ensure independent verification, observations are documented, and all initial data, methods and research results are made available to other scientists. This allows not only to obtain additional confirmation by reproducing experiments, but also to critically assess the degree of adequacy (validity) of experiments and results in relation to the theory being tested.

12. Two levels of scientific research: empirical and theoretical, their main methods

Methods are distinguished in the philosophy of science empirical and theoretical knowledge.

The empirical method of cognition is a specialized form of practice closely related to experiment. Theoretical knowledge consists in reflecting the phenomena and ongoing processes of internal connections and patterns, which are achieved by methods of processing data obtained from empirical knowledge.

The following types of scientific methods are used at the theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge:

The methods that are used at both levels are:

analysis - the decomposition of a single system into its constituent parts and the study of them separately;

synthesis - combining into a single system all the results of the analysis, which allows expanding knowledge, constructing something new;

analogy is a conclusion about the similarity of two objects in some feature based on their established similarity in other features;

modeling is the study of an object through models with the transfer of knowledge gained to the original.

13. Essence and principles of application of methods:

1) Historical and logical

historical method- a research method based on the study of the emergence, formation and development of objects in chronological order.

Through the use of the historical method, an in-depth understanding of the essence of the problem is achieved and it becomes possible to formulate more informed recommendations for a new object.

The historical method is based on the identification and analysis of contradictions in the development of objects, laws and regularities in the development of technology.

The method is based on historicism - the principle of scientific knowledge, which is a methodological expression of the self-development of reality, which includes: 1) the study of the present, current state of the subject of scientific research; 2) reconstruction of the past - consideration of the genesis, the emergence of the last and the main stages of its historical movement; 3) foreseeing the future, forecasting trends in the further development of the subject. The absolutization of the principle of historicism can lead to: a) an uncritical assessment of the present; b) archaization or modernization of the past; c) mixing the prehistory of the object with the object itself; d) substitution of the main stages of its development with secondary ones; e) foreseeing the future without analyzing the past and present.

Boolean Method- this is a way of studying the essence and content of natural and social objects, based on the study of patterns and the disclosure of objective laws on which this essence is based. The objective basis of the logical method is the fact that complex highly organized objects at the highest stages of their development concisely reproduce in their structure and functioning the main features of their historical evolution. The logical method is an effective means of revealing the patterns and tendencies of the historical process.

The logical method, combined with the historical method, act as methods for constructing theoretical knowledge. It is a mistake to identify the logical method with theoretical constructions, just as it is to identify the historical method with empirical descriptions: on the basis of historical facts, hypotheses are put forward, which are verified by facts and turn into theoretical knowledge about the laws of the historical process. If the logical method is applied, these regularities are revealed in a form purified from accidents, and the application of the historical method presupposes the fixation of these accidents, but is not reduced to a simple empirical description of events in their historical sequence, but involves their special reconstruction and disclosure of their internal logic.

Historical and genetic methods- one of the main methods of historical research aimed at studying the genesis (origin, stages of development) of specific historical phenomena and analyzing the causality of changes.

I. D. Kovalchenko defined the content of the method as “successive disclosure of the properties, functions and changes of the studied reality in the process of its historical movement, which makes it possible to get as close as possible to reproducing the real history of the object.” I. D. Kovalchenko considered specificity (factuality), descriptiveness, and subjectivism to be the distinctive features of the method.

In its content, the historical-genetic method is most consistent with the principle of historicism. The historical-genetic method is based mainly on descriptive technologies, however, the result of the historical-genetic research only outwardly has the form of a description. The main goal of the historical-genetic method is to explain the facts, to identify the causes of their appearance, the features of development and consequences, i.e., the analysis of causality.

Comparative historical method- the scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved; kind of historical method.

Historical-typological method- one of the main methods of historical research, in which the tasks of typology are realized. The typology is based on the division (ordering) of a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively homogeneous classes (types), taking into account their common characteristics. significant features. Typology requires adherence to a number of principles, the central of which is the choice of the basis of the typology, which allows reflecting the qualitative nature of both the entire set of objects and the types themselves. Typology as an analytical procedure is closely related to the abstraction and simplification of reality. This is reflected in the system of criteria and "boundaries" of types, which acquire abstract, conditional features.

deductive method- a method that consists in obtaining particular conclusions based on the knowledge of some general provisions. In other words, this is the movement of our thinking from the general to the particular, separate. For example, from the general position, all metals have electrical conductivity, one can make a deductive conclusion about the electrical conductivity of a particular copper wire (knowing that copper is a metal). If the output general propositions are an established scientific truth, then, thanks to the method of deduction, one can always get the correct conclusion. General principles and laws do not allow scientists to go astray in the process of deductive research: they help to correctly understand the specific phenomena of reality.

All natural sciences acquire new knowledge with the help of deduction, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics.

Induction- a method of cognition based on a formal logical conclusion, which makes it possible to obtain a general conclusion based on individual facts. In other words, it is the movement of our thinking from the particular to the general.

Induction is implemented in the form of the following methods:

1) single similarity method(in all cases, when observing a phenomenon, only one common factor appears, all the others are different, therefore, this only similar factor is the cause of this phenomenon);

2) single difference method(if the circumstances of the occurrence of a phenomenon and the circumstances under which it does not occur are largely similar and differ only in one factor, is present only in the first case, then we can conclude that this factor is the cause of this phenomenon)

3) connected method of similarity and difference(is a combination of the above two methods);

4) concomitant change method(if certain changes in one phenomenon each time cause certain changes in another phenomenon, then the conclusion follows about a causal relationship between these phenomena);

5) residual method(if a complex phenomenon is due to a multifactorial cause "and some of these factors are known as the cause of some part of this phenomenon, then the conclusion follows: the cause of another part of the phenomenon is other factors that together make up common cause this phenomenon).

The founder of the classical inductive method of cognition was F. Bacon.

Modeling is a method of creating and examining models. The study of the model allows you to get new knowledge, new holistic information about the object.

The essential features of the model are: visibility, abstraction, an element of scientific fantasy and imagination, the use of analogy as a logical method of construction, an element of hypotheticality. In other words, the model is a hypothesis expressed in a visual form.

The process of creating a model is quite laborious, the researcher, as it were, goes through several stages.

The first is a thorough study of the experience associated with the phenomenon of interest to the researcher, analysis and generalization of this experience and the creation of a hypothesis underlying the future model.

The second is the preparation of a research program, the organization of practical activities in accordance with the developed program, the introduction of corrections into it, prompted by practice, the refinement of the initial research hypothesis taken as the basis of the model.

The third is the creation of the final version of the model. If at the second stage the researcher, as it were, offers various options for the constructed phenomenon, then at the third stage, on the basis of these options, he creates the final sample of the process (or project) that he is going to implement.

synchronous- is used less often than others and with the help of which it is possible to establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes occurring at the same time, but in different parts of the country or outside it.

Chronological- consists in the fact that the phenomena of history are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. It is used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies.

periodization- is based on the fact that both society as a whole and any of its constituent parts go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in the study and research. The diachronic method implies the study of a certain phenomenon in its development or the study of the change of stages, epochs in the history of a single region.

Retrospective- is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time under study.

Updates- the historian tries to predict, to give practical recommendations based on the "lessons of history".

Statistical- consists in the study of important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of a multitude of homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while in the aggregate they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

biographical method- a method of researching a person, groups of people, based on the analysis of their professional path and personal biographies. The source of information can be a variety of documents, resumes, questionnaires, interviews, tests, spontaneous and provoked autobiographies, eyewitness accounts (survey of colleagues), the study of activity products.

2.1. General scientific methods 5

2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7

1. Bibliography. 12

1. The concept of methodology and method.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Methodology (from "method" and "logy") - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical development of reality, based on the laws of behavior of the object under study.

Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called general methods, i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can also be classified according to the ratio of empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is the knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is presented in fig. 1.2.

Each industry applies its specific scientific, special methods, due to the essence of the object of study. However, often the methods characteristic of a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that the objects of biological research include in one form or another the physical and chemical forms of the movement of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is a method of cognition of reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical method, considering phenomena outside their mutual connection and development.

From the middle of the 19th century, the metaphysical method was more and more displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods

The ratio of general scientific methods can also be represented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).

Brief description of these methods.

Analysis is the mental or real decomposition of an object into its component parts.

Synthesis is the unification of the elements known as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization - the process of mental transition from the singular to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment "this metal conducts electricity" to the judgment "all metals conduct electricity", from the judgment: " mechanical shape energy is converted into thermal energy” to the proposition “every form of energy is converted into thermal energy”.

Abstraction (idealization) - mental introduction certain changes into the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties, features of objects that are not essential for this study. An example of such an idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point that has mass but no dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction - the process of excretion general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves the conclusion about all the objects of the set based on the knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental studies and including a theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict formulation of the experiment, logical sequence and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general propositions are an established scientific truth, then the true conclusion will always be obtained by deduction. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and build their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving particular, specific problems.

Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some feature, based on their established similarity in other features. The analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. So, by analogy with artificial selection best breeds domestic animals Ch. Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of the object of knowledge on its specially arranged analogue - the model. Models can be real (material), for example, aircraft models, building models, photographs, prostheses, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (as a natural human language, and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually it is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system under study.

The historical method implies the reproduction of the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in fact, the logical reproduction of the history of the object under study. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental, insignificant, i.e. it is, as it were, the same historical method, but liberated from its historical form.

Classification - the distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their common features, fixing regular relationships between classes of objects in unified system particular branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the studied objects, phenomena.

2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

The methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig.3.

observation.

Observation is a sensual reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows one to obtain some primary information about objects in the environment.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the task of the study);

regularity (observation should be carried out strictly according to the plan drawn up on the basis of the research task);

activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to fix the technical properties, aspects of the object under study, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of the results of observations form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the studied objects according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct and indirect.

With direct observation, certain properties, sides of the object are reflected, perceived by the human senses. Currently, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned orbital station are the simplest and most effective method studies of the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Earth, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of cloud cover, types of clouds, the boundaries of the removal of muddy river waters into the sea, etc.

However, most often the observation is indirect, that is, it is carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, before the beginning of the 17th century, astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, then the invention by Galileo in 1608 optical telescope raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observation, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated. From the foregoing, it follows that observations are a very important method of empirical knowledge, providing the collection of extensive information about the world around us.

The method of scientific research is a way of knowing the objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels.

To methods empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, simulation, etc.

To theoretical level methods they include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

a) universal (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

b) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

c) private - for related sciences;

d) special - for a particular science, area of ​​scientific knowledge.

From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research.

Under the research technique is understood a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. Private methodology of scientific research, for example, for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, state-legal phenomena.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Among universal (philosophical) methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. So, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism.

Russian legal scholars use the dialectical method to study state-legal phenomena, because the laws of dialectics are of universal importance, inherent in the development of nature, society and thinking.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) unity and struggle of opposites,

b) the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones,

c) negation of negation.

2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes under study, based on philosophical categories: general, particular and singular; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; cause and effect.

3. Treat the object of study as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study:

comprehensively,

in universal connection and interdependence,

in continuous change, development,

specifically historical.

5. Check the acquired knowledge in practice.

All general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis- this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its constituent parts. It underlies the analytical method of research. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization.

Synthesis- this is a combination of individual aspects, parts of the object of study into a single whole.

Induction- this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to a general position. Inductive reasoning "suggests" a thought, a general idea.

Deduction - this is the derivation of a single, particular from any general position, the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “deduced” from other thoughts.

Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others, a reasoning in which, from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features.

To methods theoretical level they include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

Axiomatic method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements are accepted without evidence and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical Method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method is the hypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

a) putting forward a guess (assumption) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects,

b) selection from a set of guesses of the most probable, plausible,

c) deduction from the selected assumption (premise) of the consequence (conclusion) with the help of deduction,

d) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

Formalization- displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of some artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as polysemy, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.

When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of study, they operate with signs (formulas). Through operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas, prove the truth of any proposition.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

abstraction- mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. highlighting the common properties and relations of the objects under study, establishing the identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class; isolation, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of research. In theory, other types of abstraction are also distinguished: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization- establishing common properties and relations of objects and phenomena; definition of a general concept, which reflects the essential, basic features of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not essential, but any features of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of general, particular and singular.

historical method is to identify historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of objects of study in chronological order.

Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge consists in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the object (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes under various conditions, discovers new connections and in this way displays its essence in its entirety.

System Method is to study the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these interrelations and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent from its constituent objects.

To empirical level methods include: observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.

Observation- this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and included observation are distinguished. The first is observation from the outside, when the researcher is an outsider in relation to the object, a person who is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher is openly or incognito included in the group, its activities as a participant.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the environmental conditions, the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on films and in other ways.

Description- this is a fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:

direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the features of the object;

indirect, when the researcher notes the signs of the object that were perceived by other persons.

Check- this is the definition of quantitative ratios of objects of study or parameters that characterize their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in statistics.

Measurement- this is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with the standard. In forensics, measurement is used to determine: the distance between objects; the speed of movement of vehicles, a person or other objects; the duration of certain phenomena and processes, temperature, size, weight, etc.

Comparison- this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding common ground in them.

In a scientific study, this method is used, for example, to compare the state-legal institutions of different states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identification of common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages.

Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.

Experiments can be classified on various grounds:

by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - ordinary (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

The above classification is not exhaustive.

Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of study with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object.

Based on the similarity of the model and the object being modeled, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.

In modeling theory, there are:

1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, records, signs, mathematical interpretation;

2) material (natural, real- physical) models, for example, mock-ups, dummies, analogue objects for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of a person’s appearance according to the method of M.M. Gerasimov.