The territory of the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century

At the beginning of the XIX century. Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825) initiated broad transformations in the sphere of state power and social relations. A characteristic feature of his reign was the struggle between two currents: liberal and conservative-protective, maneuvering the emperor between them. After accession to the throne, Alexander abolished restrictions on the import and export of goods and books, trips abroad, confirmed the Charter of the nobility, restored relations with England, returned from exile and removed disgrace from all officers and officials who suffered under Paul.

To discuss state issues in 1801, under the emperor, an Indispensable Council was formed - an advisory body of 12 people. At the same time, under Alexander I, an Unofficial Committee was formed - a circle of young friends of the tsar, which included P. Stroganov, N. Novosiltsev, V. Kochubey, A. Czartoryski. They discussed the issues of reforming Russia, the abolition of serfdom, and the constitution.

In 1803, a decree "On Free Plowmen" was issued. In accordance with it, landowners could release serfs with land for a ransom. Decrees 1804-1805 limited serfdom in the Baltics. It was forbidden to sell peasants without land.

In 1803, a new regulation "On the organization of educational institutions" appeared. During the reign of Alexander, 5 new universities were opened. The university charter of 1804 secured the autonomy of the universities.

The Manifesto of 1802 established 8 ministries instead of colleges. In 1808-1812. preparation of projects for the reorganization of the state management system was concentrated in the Ministry of Internal Affairs and was led by M.M. Speransky. In 1809, he presented a draft reform "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." The project provided for the separation of powers. The State Duma, which led the network of volost, district and provincial dumas, was declared the supreme legislative body. The emperor had the highest executive power, under which the State Council was established as an advisory body. The Senate became the highest judicial body.

In 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative body. In 1810, the General Establishment of Ministries, developed by Speransky, was introduced, which determined the composition, limits of power and responsibility of the ministries.

The hatred of the courtiers and officials was caused by the decree prepared by Speransky in 1809, according to which all persons who had a court rank had to choose some kind of real service, i.e. the court rank turned only into an honorary title, lost the status of a position. Speransky also carried out a number of measures aimed at improving finances. In 1812, Speransky was dismissed from public service and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm.

Foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the XIX century. determined mainly by the situation that developed in Europe.

In 1805, Russia again joined the anti-French coalition. The Russian army with its allies was defeated at Austerlitz. In 1806, battles took place at Pultusk and Preussisch-Eylau. Battle of Friedland in 1807 ended this war and completed the defeat of the Russian army.

In the summer of 1807, Russia and France signed the Treaty of Tilsit and the treaty of alliance against England. This was the first meeting between Alexander I and Napoleon. Russia agreed to mediate in the negotiations between France and Great Britain, and France assumed the role of a mediator in the conclusion of peace between Russia and Turkey. Russia pledged to withdraw its troops from Moldova, Wallachia and recognized the sovereignty of France over the Ionian Islands. The parties agreed to conduct joint actions in the war against any European power. It was agreed that if Great Britain did not accept the mediation of the Russians or did not agree to make peace, Russia would have to break off diplomatic and commercial relations with her. Napoleon, for his part, took upon himself the obligation to take the side of Russia against Turkey.

Great Britain refused the proposal of Alexander I for mediation. Remaining true to the treaty just signed, Russia declared war on England. France, in violation of its treaty obligations in the Balkans, secretly encouraged Turkey in military operations against Russia. The war with England did not meet the interests of Russia. The termination of trade and political ties with it had a detrimental effect on the country's economy. The formation of the Duchy of Warsaw was for France a foothold on the Russian border.

In 1804, the Russian-Iranian war began because of the disputed territories. During the campaign of 1804-1806. Russia occupied the khanates north of the river, the Araks (Baku, Quba, Ganja, Derbent, etc.). The transition of these territories to Russia was secured in the Gulistan Peace Treaty of 1813.

During the Russian-Turkish war (1806-1812) in the Dardanelles and Athos sea battles in 1807, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. In 1811, the newly appointed commander-in-chief, General M.I. Kutuzov won a decisive victory at Ruschuk. In 1812 the Treaty of Bucharest was signed. Turkey ceded Bessarabia to Russia, an autonomous Serbian principality was created.

In 1808-1809. was the last Russian-Swedish war in the history of relations between these states. It resulted in the signing of the Friedrichsgam Treaty, according to which all of Finland, together with the Aland Islands, became part of the Russian Empire as a grand principality. The Russian-Swedish border was established along the Gulf of Bothnia and the Torneo and Muonio rivers.

1. Socio-economic and political development of Russia under Alexander 1.

2. Domestic and foreign policy of Nicholas 1.

3. Reforms of Alexander 2 and their significance.

4. The main features of the country's development in the post-reform period.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russia was the world's largest power, stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, from the Arctic to the Caucasus and the Black Sea. The population increased sharply and amounted to 43.5 million people. Approximately 1% of the population was the nobility, there were also a few Orthodox clergy, merchants, bourgeoisie, Cossacks. 90% of the population were state, landlord and specific (former palace) peasants. In the period under study, a new trend is more and more clearly manifested in the social structure of the country - the estate system is gradually becoming obsolete, the strict delimitation of estates is becoming a thing of the past. New features also appeared in the economic sphere - serfdom hinders the development of the landlord economy, the formation of a labor market, the growth of manufactories, trade, cities, which testified to the crisis of the feudal-serf system. Russia was in dire need of reforms.

Alexander 1, upon accession to the throne ((1801-1825), announced the revival of Catherine's traditions of government and restored the action of the Letters of Complaint to the nobility and cities canceled by his father, returned about 12 thousand repressed persons from disgrace from exile, opened the borders for the exit of nobles, allowed subscription to foreign publications, abolished the Secret Expedition, declared freedom of trade, announced the termination of grants from state-owned peasants to private hands.Back in the 90s under Alexander, a circle of young like-minded people formed, who immediately after his accession became part of the Unspoken Committee, which actually became the government of the country. In 1803, he signed a decree on “free cultivators,” according to which landlords could release their serfs into the wild with land for ransom by entire villages or individual families.Although the practical results of this reform were small (0.5% f.m.p.) , its main ideas formed the basis of the peasant reform of 1861. In 1804, the peasant reform was launched in the Baltic states: zd Here, the payments and the size of the duties of the peasants were clearly defined, the principle of inheritance of land by the peasants was introduced. The emperor paid special attention to the reform of the central government; in 1801 he created the Permanent Council, which was replaced in 1810 by the State Council. In 1802-1811. the college system was replaced by 8 ministries: military, maritime, justice, finance, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce and public education. The Senate under Alexander 1 acquired the status of the highest court and exercised control over local authorities. Of great importance were the reform projects put forward in 1809-1810. Secretary of State, Deputy Minister of Justice M.M. Speransky. Speransky's state reforms implied a clear separation of powers into legislative (State Duma), executive (ministries) and judicial (Senate), the introduction of the principle of the presumption of innocence, the recognition of voting rights for nobles, merchants and state peasants and the possibility of lower classes to move to higher ones. Speransky's economic reforms provided for a reduction in government spending, the introduction of a special tax on landowners and specific estates, the cessation of the issuance of bonds that were not backed by values, etc. The implementation of these reforms would have led to the restriction of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom. Therefore, the reforms aroused the discontent of the nobles and were criticized. Alexander 1 dismissed Speransky and exiled him first to Nizhny and then to Perm.

Alexander's foreign policy was unusually active and fruitful. Under him, Georgia was included in Russia (as a result of the active expansion of Turkey and Iran to Georgia, the latter turned to Russia for protection), Northern Azerbaijan (as a result of the Russian-Iranian war of 1804-1813), Bessarabia (as a result of the Russian-Turkish war 1806-1812), Finland (as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1809). The main direction of foreign policy in the early 19th century. was a struggle with Napoleonic France. By this time, a significant part of Europe had already been occupied by French troops, in 1807, after a series of defeats, Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit, humiliating for her. With the beginning of the Patriotic War in June 1812. The emperor was part of the active army. In the Patriotic War of 1812, several stages can be distinguished:

June 12 - August 4-5, 1812 - the French army crosses the Neman (220-160) and moves to Smolensk, where a bloody battle took place between the army of Napoleon and the united armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration. The French army lost 20 thousand soldiers and after a 2-day assault entered the destroyed and burned Smolensk.

1.13 August 5 - August 26 - Napoleon's attack on Moscow and the Battle of Borodino, after which Kutuzov leaves Moscow.

1.14 September - early October 1812 - Napoleon plunders and burns Moscow, Kutuzov's troops are replenished and rest in the Tarutinsky camp.

1.15 beginning of October 1812 - December 25, 1812 - by the efforts of Kutuzov's army (the battle of Maloyaroslavets on October 12) and the partisans, the movement of Napoleon's army to the south was stopped, he returns along the devastated Smolensk road; most of his army perishes, Napoleon himself secretly flees to Paris. On December 25, 1812, Alexander published a special manifesto about the expulsion of the enemy from Russia and the end of the Patriotic War.

However, the expulsion of Napoleon from Russia did not guarantee the security of the country, therefore, on January 1, 1813, the Russian army crossed the border and began pursuing the enemy; by spring, a significant part of Poland, Berlin, was liberated, and in October 1813. after the creation of an anti-Napoleonic coalition consisting of Russia, England, Prussia, Austria and Sweden, in the famous "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig, Napoleon's army was defeated. In March 1814, the allied troops (the Russian army, led by Alexander 1) entered Paris. at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. the territory of France was restored within the pre-revolutionary borders, and a significant part of Poland, together with Warsaw, became part of Russia. In addition, the Holy Alliance was created by Russia, Prussia and Austria to jointly fight the revolutionary movement in Europe.

Alexander's post-war policy changed significantly. Fearing the revolutionary impact on Russian society of the ideas of the FR, a more progressive political system established in the West, the emperor banned secret societies in Russia (1822), created military settlements 91812, secret police in the army (1821), and increased ideological pressure on the university community. However, during this period, he does not depart from the ideas of reforming Russia - he signs the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland (1815), declares his intention to introduce a constitutional system throughout Russia. On his behalf, N.I. Novosiltsev developed the State charter, which contained the remaining elements of constitutionalism. With his knowledge, A.A. Arakcheev prepared special projects for the gradual emancipation of the serfs. However, all this did not change the general nature of the political course pursued by Alexander1. In September 1825, during a trip to the Crimea, he fell ill and died in Taganrog. With his death, a dynastic crisis arose, caused by the secret addition (during the life of Alexander 1) from his duties as heir to the throne, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich. The Decembrists, a social movement that arose after the war of 1812, took advantage of this situation. and proclaimed the priority of the personality of a person, his freedoms over everything else as the main idea.

December 14, 1825, on the day of the oath to Nicholas 1, the Decembrists raised an uprising, which was brutally suppressed. This fact largely predetermined the essence of the policy of Nicholas 1, the main direction of which was the fight against free thought. It is no coincidence that the period of his reign - 1825-1855 - is called the apogee of autocracy. In 1826, the 3rd Department of His Imperial Majesty's own Chancellery was founded, which became the main instrument for controlling mindsets and fighting against dissidents. Under Nicholas, the official government ideological doctrine took shape - the "theory of official nationality", the essence of which its author Count Uvarov expressed in the formula - Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. The reactionary policy of Nicholas 1 most of all manifested itself in the field of education and the press, which was most clearly manifested in the Charter of educational institutions of 1828, the University Charter of 1835, the censorship charter of 1826, and numerous bans on the publication of magazines. Among the most important events of the reign of Nicholas:

1. reform of the management of state peasants P.D. Kiselev, which consisted in the introduction of self-government, the founding of schools, hospitals, the allocation of the best land for "public plowing" in the villages of state peasants;

2. inventory reform - in 1844, committees were created in the western provinces to develop "inventories", i.e. descriptions of landowners' estates with precise fixation of peasant allotments and duties in favor of the landowner, which could no longer be changed;

3. codification of the laws of M.M. Speransky - in 1833, the PSZ RI and the Code of Acting Laws were published in 15 volumes;

4. financial reform E.F. Kankrin, whose main directions were the transformation of the silver ruble into the main means of payment, the issuance of credit notes freely exchanged for silver;

5. commissioning of the first railways in Russia.

Despite the tough government course of Nicholas 1, it was during the years of his reign that a broad social movement was formed in Russia, in which three main directions can be distinguished - conservative (led by Uvarov, Shevyryov, Pogodin, Grech, Bulgarin), revolutionary-democratic (Herzen, Ogarev, Petrashevsky), Westernizers and Slavophiles (Kavelin, Granovsky, the Aksakov brothers, Samarin, etc.).

In the field of foreign policy, Nicholas 1 considered the main tasks of his reign to be the expansion of Russia's influence on the state of affairs in Europe and the world, as well as the fight against the revolutionary movement. To this end, in 1833, together with the monarchs of Prussia and Austria, he formalized a political union (Holy), which for several years determined the balance of power in Europe in favor of Russia. In 1848 he broke off relations with revolutionary France, and in 1849 he ordered the Russian army to crush the Hungarian revolution. In addition, under Nicholas 1, a significant part of the budget (up to 40%) was spent on military needs. The main direction in Nicholas's foreign policy was the "Eastern Question", which led Russia to wars with Iran and Turkey (1826-1829) and international isolation in the early 50s, ending with the Crimean War (1853-1856). For Russia, the solution of the eastern question meant ensuring the security of the southern borders, establishing control over the Black Sea straits, and strengthening political influence in the Balkan and Middle Eastern regions. The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic (France) and Orthodox (Russia) clergy about "Palestinian shrines." In fact, it was about strengthening the positions of these camps in the Middle East. England and Austria, on whose support Russia counted in this war, went over to the side of France. On October 16, 1853, after Russian troops entered Moldavia and Wallachia under the pretext of protecting the Orthodox population of the OJ, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia. England and France became allies of the Olympic Games. (November 18, 1853, the last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet - Sinop, October 54 - August 55 - siege of Sevastopol) Due to military-technical backwardness, mediocrity of the military command, Russia lost this war and in March 1856 a peace treaty was signed in Paris an agreement under which Russia lost the islands in the Danube Delta and South Bessarabia, returned Kars to Turkey, and in exchange received Sevastopol and Evpatoria, lost the right to have a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea. The Crimean War showed the backwardness of serf Russia and significantly lowered the country's international prestige.

After the death of Nicholas in 1855. his eldest son Alexander 2 (1855-1881) came to the throne. He immediately granted amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevists, participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-31. and announced the beginning of an era of reform. In 1856, he personally headed the Special Secret Committee for the abolition of serfdom, later instructed the establishment of provincial committees to prepare local reform projects. On February 19, 1861, Alexander 2 signed the "Regulations on the Reform" and the "Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom." The main provisions of the reform:

1. serfs received personal freedom and independence from the landowner (they could not be donated, sold, bought, resettled, pledged, but their civil rights were incomplete - they continued to pay the poll tax, carried recruitment duty, corporal punishment;

2. elected peasant self-government was introduced;

3. the owner of the land in the estate remained the landowner; peasants received the established land allotment for redemption, which was equal to the annual amount of dues, increased by an average of 17 times. The state paid the landowner 80% of the amount, 20% was paid by the peasants. For 49 years, the peasants had to return the debt to the state with%. Until the redemption of the land, the peasants were considered temporarily liable to the landowner and carried the old duties. The owner of the land was the community, from which the peasant could not leave until the ransom was paid.

The abolition of serfdom made reforms in other areas of Russian society inevitable. Among them:

1. Zemstvo reform (1864) - the creation of classless elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos. In the provinces and districts, administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies and executive bodies - zemstvo councils were created. Elections to district zemstvo assemblies were held once every 3 years at 3 election congresses. Voters were divided into three curia: landowners, townspeople and elected from rural societies. Zemstvos solved local problems - they were in charge of opening schools, hospitals, building and repairing roads, providing assistance to the population in lean years, etc.

2. City reform (1870) - the creation of city dumas and city governments, solving the economic issues of cities. These institutions were headed by the mayor. The right to elect and be elected was limited by the property qualification.

3. Judicial reform (1864) - the class, secret court, dependent on the administration and the police, was replaced by a classless, open, competitive, independent court with the election of some judicial bodies. The guilt or innocence of the defendant was determined by 12 jurors selected from all classes. The measure of punishment was determined by a judge appointed by the government and 2 members of the court, and only the Senate or a military court could sentence to death. 2 systems of courts were established - world courts (created in counties and cities, small criminal and civil cases) and general - district courts, created within the provinces and judicial chambers, uniting several judicial districts. (political affairs, malfeasance)

4. Military reform (1861-1874) - recruitment was canceled and general military service was introduced (from the age of 20 - all men), the service life was reduced to 6 years in the infantry and 7 years in the navy and depended on the degree of education of the soldier. The system of military administration was also reformed: 15 military districts were introduced in Russia, the management of which was subordinate only to the Minister of War. In addition, military educational institutions were reformed, rearmament was carried out, corporal punishment was abolished, etc. As a result, the Russian military forces turned into a mass army of a modern type.

In general, the liberal reforms A 2, for which he was nicknamed the Tsar-Liberator, were progressive in nature and were of great importance for Russia - they contributed to the development of market relations in the economy, an increase in the standard of living and education of the country's population, and an increase in the country's defense capability.

During the reign of A 2, a social movement reaches a large scale, in which 3 main directions can be distinguished:

1. conservative (Katkov), advocating political stability and reflecting the interests of the nobility;

2. liberal (Kavelin, Chicherin) with the demands of various freedoms (freedom from serfdom, freedom of conscience, public opinion, printing, teaching, publicity of the court). The weakness of the liberals was that they did not put forward the main liberal principle - the introduction of a constitution.

3. revolutionary (Herzen, Chernyshevsky), the main slogans of which were the introduction of a constitution, freedom of the press, the transfer of all land to the peasants and the call of the people to action. The revolutionaries in 1861 created a secret illegal organization "Land and Freedom", which in 1879 split into 2 organizations: the propaganda "Black Redistribution" and the terrorist "Narodnaya Volya". The ideas of Herzen and Chernyshevsky became the basis of populism (Lavrov, Bakunin, Tkachev), but the visits to the people organized by them (1874 and 1877) were unsuccessful.

Thus, a feature of the social movement of the 60-80s. there was a weakness of the liberal center and strong extreme groupings.

Foreign policy. As a result of the continuation of the Caucasian War (1817-1864) begun under Alexander 1, the Caucasus was annexed to Russia. In 1865-1881. Turkestan became part of Russia, the borders of Russia and China along the Amur were fixed. A 2 continued his father's attempts to solve the "Eastern question", in 1877-1878. waged war with Turkey. In matters of foreign policy, he was guided by Germany; in 1873 he concluded with Germany and Austria the "Union of the Three Emperors". March 1, 1881 A2. He was mortally wounded on the embankment of the Catherine Canal by a bomb from the People's Will I.I. Grinevitsky.

In the post-reform period, serious changes are taking place in the social structure of Russian society and the country's economy. The process of stratification of the peasantry is intensifying, the bourgeoisie, the working class are being formed, the number of intelligentsia is growing, i.e. class partitions are being erased and communities are being formed along economic, class lines. By the beginning of the 80s. in Russia, the industrial revolution is being completed - the creation of a powerful economic base has begun, the modernization of industry is being carried out, its organization on a capitalist basis.

A3 upon accession to the throne in 1881 (1881-1894) immediately announced the rejection of reformist ideas, however, his first measures continued the previous course: a mandatory redemption was introduced, redemption payments were destroyed, plans were developed for convening a Zemsky Sobor, a Peasant Bank was established, the poll tax was abolished (1882), benefits were granted to the Old Believers (1883). At the same time, A3 crushed Narodnaya Volya. With the coming to the leadership of the government of Tolstoy (1882), there was a change in the internal political course, which began to be based on "the revival of the inviolability of the autocracy." To this end, control over the press was strengthened, special rights were granted to the nobility in obtaining higher education, the Noble Bank was established, and measures were taken to preserve the peasant community. In 1892, with the appointment of S.Yu. Witte, whose program included a tough tax policy, protectionism, the widespread attraction of foreign capital, the introduction of the golden ruble, the introduction of a state monopoly on the production and sale of vodka, the "golden decade of Russian industry" begins.

Under A3, serious changes take place in the social movement: conservatism intensifies (Katkov, Pobedonostsev), after the defeat of the "people's will", reformist liberal populism began to play a significant role, Marxism spreads (Plekhanov, Ulyanov). In 1883, Russian Marxists created the Emancipation of Labor group in Geneva, in 1895 Ulyanov organized the Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class in St. Petersburg, and in 1898 the RSDLP was founded in Minsk.

Under A 3, Russia did not wage major wars (Peacemaker), but nevertheless significantly expanded its borders in Central Asia. In European politics, A 3 continued to focus on an alliance with Germany and Austria, and in 1891. signed an alliance with France.

8.1 The choice of the path of historical development of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century under Alexander I.

8.2 Decembrist movement.

8.3 Conservative modernization under Nicholas I

8.4 Public thought of the middle of the 19th century: Westerners and Slavophiles.

8.5 Culture of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

8.1 The choice of the path of historical development of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century under Alexander I

Alexander I - the eldest son of Paul I, came to power as a result of a palace coup in March 1801. Alexander was initiated into the conspiracy, and agreed to it, but on the condition that his father's life be saved. The murder of Paul I shocked Alexander, and until the end of his life he blamed himself for the death of his father.

characteristic feature of government Alexandra I (1801-1825) there is a struggle between two currents - liberal and conservative, and the maneuvering of the emperor between them. In the reign of Alexander I, two periods are distinguished. Before the Patriotic War of 1812, the liberal period lasted, after the foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. - conservative .

Liberal period of government. Alexander was well educated and brought up in a liberal spirit. In the manifesto on accession to the throne, Alexander I announced that he would rule "according to the laws and according to the heart" of his grandmother Catherine the Great. He immediately abolished the restrictions imposed by Paul I on trade with England and the regulations that annoyed people in everyday life, clothing, social behavior, etc. Letters of grant to the nobility and cities were restored, free entry and exit abroad, the import of foreign books were allowed, an amnesty was given to people who were persecuted under Paul. Religious tolerance and the right of non-nobles to buy land were proclaimed.

In order to prepare a reform program, Alexander I created The secret committee (1801-1803) - an unofficial body, which included his friends V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, P.A. Stroganov, A.A. Czartoryski. This committee was discussing the reforms.

In 1802 the colleges were replaced ministries . This measure meant replacing the principle of collegiality with one-man management. Eight ministries were established: military, maritime, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. The Committee of Ministers was formed to discuss important issues.

In 1802, the Senate was reformed, becoming the highest judicial and controlling body in the system of state administration.

In 1803, the "Decree on free ploughmen" was adopted. The landowners received the right to release their peasants into the wild, providing them with land for ransom. However, this decree did not have great practical consequences: during the entire reign of Alexander I, a little more than 47 thousand serfs, that is, less than 0.5% of their total number, went free.

In 1804 the Kharkov and Kazan universities, the Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg (since 1819 - the university) were opened. In 1811 the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was founded. The university statute of 1804 granted the universities broad autonomy. Educational districts and continuity of 4 levels of education (parochial school, county school, gymnasium, university) were created. Primary education was proclaimed free and classless. A liberal censorship charter was approved.

In 1808, on behalf of Alexander I, the most talented official M.M. Speransky, chief prosecutor of the Senate (1808-1811), developed a draft reform. It was based on the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. It was supposed to establish the State Duma as the highest legislative body; election of executive authorities. And although the project did not abolish the monarchy and serfdom, in the aristocratic environment, Speransky's proposals were considered too radical. Officials and courtiers were dissatisfied with him and achieved that M.M. Speransky was accused of spying for Napoleon. In 1812, he was dismissed and exiled, first to Nizhny Novgorod, then to Perm.

Of all the proposals of M.M. Speransky, one thing was accepted: in 1810, the State Council of the members appointed by the emperor became the supreme legislative body of the empire.

The Patriotic War of 1812 interrupted the liberal reforms. After the war and foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Alexander's policy becomes more and more conservative.

Conservative period of government. In 1815-1825. Conservative tendencies intensified in the domestic policy of Alexander I. However, liberal reforms were first resumed.

In 1815, Poland was granted a constitution that was liberal in nature and provided for the internal self-government of Poland within Russia. In 1816-1819. serfdom was abolished in the Baltics. In 1818, work began in Russia on the preparation of a draft Constitution for the entire empire on the basis of the Polish one, which was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev and the development of secret projects for the abolition of serfdom (A.A. Arakcheev). It was supposed to introduce a constitutional monarchy in Russia and the establishment of a parliament. However, this work was not completed.

Faced with the discontent of the nobles, Alexander abandons liberal reforms. Fearing to repeat the fate of his father, the emperor is increasingly moving to a conservative position. Period 1816-1825 called Arakcheevshchina , those. a policy of brutal military discipline. The period got its name because at that time General A.A. Arakcheev actually concentrated in his hands the leadership of the State Council, the Cabinet of Ministers, was the only speaker to Alexander I on most departments. Military settlements, which were widely introduced from 1816, became the symbol of Arakcheevshchina.

military settlements - a special organization of troops in Russia in 1810-1857, in which state peasants enrolled in military settlers combined service with agriculture. In fact, the settlers became enslaved twice - as peasants and as soldiers. Military settlements were introduced in order to reduce the cost of the army and stop recruiting, as the children of military settlers themselves became military settlers. A good idea eventually resulted in mass discontent.

In 1821, the Kazan and St. Petersburg universities were purged. Increased censorship. Cane discipline was restored in the army. The rejection of the promised liberal reforms led to the radicalization of part of the noble intelligentsia, the emergence of secret anti-government organizations.

Foreign policy under Alexander I. Patriotic War of 1812 The main task in foreign policy during the reign of Alexander I remained the containment of French expansion in Europe. Two main directions prevailed in politics: European and southern (Middle Eastern).

In 1801, Eastern Georgia was admitted to Russia, and in 1804 Western Georgia was annexed to Russia. The assertion of Russia in Transcaucasia led to a war with Iran (1804-1813). Thanks to the successful actions of the Russian army, the main part of Azerbaijan was under the control of Russia. In 1806, the war between Russia and Turkey began, ending with the signing of a peace treaty in Bucharest in 1812, according to which the eastern part of Moldavia (the lands of Bessarabia) departed to Russia, and the border with Turkey was established along the Prut River.

In Europe, Russia's task was to prevent French hegemony. At first, things didn't go well. In 1805, Napoleon defeated the Russian-Austrian troops at Austerlitz. In 1807, Alexander I signed the Treaty of Tilsit with France, according to which Russia joined the continental blockade of England and recognized all the conquests of Napoleon. However, the blockade, which was disadvantageous for the Russian economy, was not respected, so in 1812 Napoleon decided to start a war with Russia, which intensified even more after the victorious Russian-Swedish war (1808-1809) and the accession of Finland to it.

Napoleon counted on a quick victory in border battles, and then forced him to sign a treaty that was beneficial to him. And the Russian troops intended to lure the Napoleonic army deep into the country, disrupt its supply and defeat it. The French army numbered more than 600 thousand people, more than 400 thousand participated directly in the invasion, it included representatives of the conquered peoples of Europe. The Russian army was divided into three parts, located along the borders, with the intention of counterattacking. 1st Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly numbered about 120 thousand people, the 2nd army of P.I. Bagration - about 50 thousand and the 3rd army of A.P. Tormasov - about 40 thousand people.

On June 12, 1812, Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River and entered Russian territory. The Patriotic War of 1812 began. Retreating with battles, the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration managed to unite near Smolensk, but after stubborn battles the city was abandoned. Avoiding a general battle, the Russian troops continued to retreat. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with individual units of the French, exhausting and exhausting the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him. A guerrilla war broke out.

Public dissatisfaction with the long retreat, with which Barclay de Tolly was associated, forced Alexander I to appoint M.I. Kutuzov, an experienced commander, a student of A.V. Suvorov. In the context of a war that was acquiring a national character, this was of great importance.

On August 26, 1812, the Battle of Borodino took place. Both armies suffered heavy losses (the French - about 30 thousand, the Russians - more than 40 thousand people). The main goal of Napoleon - the defeat of the Russian army - was not achieved. The Russians, not having the strength to continue the battle, withdrew. After the military council in Fili, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army M.I. Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow. Having made the "Taruta maneuver", the Russian army left the pursuit of the enemy and settled down for rest and replenishment in a camp near Tarutino, south of Moscow, covering the Tula arms factories and the southern provinces of Russia.

On September 2, 1812, the French army entered Moscow. However, no one was in a hurry to sign a peace treaty with Napoleon. Soon the French began to have difficulties: there was not enough food and ammunition, discipline was decomposing. Fires broke out in Moscow. October 6, 1812 Napoleon withdrew troops from Moscow. On October 12, at Maloyaroslavets, Kutuzov's troops met him and, after a fierce battle, forced the French to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road.

Moving to the West, losing people from clashes with Russian flying cavalry units, due to disease and hunger, Napoleon brought about 60 thousand people to Smolensk. The Russian army marched in parallel and threatened to cut off the retreat. In the battle on the Berezina River, the French army was defeated. About 30,000 Napoleonic troops crossed the borders of Russia. December 25, 1812 Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War. The main reason for the victory was the patriotism and heroism of the people who fought for their homeland.

In 1813-1814. foreign campaigns of the Russian army took place with the aim of finally putting an end to French rule in Europe. In January 1813, she entered the territory of Europe, Prussia, England, Sweden and Austria went over to her side. In the battle of Leipzig (October 1813), nicknamed the "Battle of the Nations", Napoleon was defeated. At the beginning of 1814 he abdicated the throne. Under the Treaty of Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, Napoleon was exiled to Fr. Elba in the Mediterranean.

In September 1814, delegations from the victorious countries gathered in Vienna to resolve disputed territorial issues. Serious disagreements arose between them, but the news of Napoleon's flight from Fr. Elba ("Hundred Days") and his seizure of power in France catalyzed the process of negotiations. As a result, Saxony passed to Prussia, Finland, Bessarabia and the main part of the Duchy of Warsaw with its capital - to Russia. On June 6, 1815, Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo by the allies and exiled to about. St. Helena.

In September 1815 was created Holy Union , which included Russia, Prussia and Austria. The goals of the Union were to preserve the state borders established by the Congress of Vienna, to suppress revolutionary and national liberation movements in European countries. Russia's conservatism in foreign policy was reflected in domestic policy, in which conservative tendencies were also growing.

Summing up the reign of Alexander I, we can say that Russia at the beginning of the 19th century could become a relatively free country. The unpreparedness of society, especially the highest, for liberal reforms, the personal motives of the emperor led to the fact that the country continued to develop on the basis of the established order, i.e. conservatively.

The Russian Empire entered the new 19th century as a mighty power. The capitalist structure has become stronger in the Russian economy, but the nobility, which was united during the reign of Catherine II, remained the determining factor in the economic life of the country. The nobility expanded its privileges, only this “noble” class owned all the land, and a significant part of the peasants who fell into serfdom were subordinated to it on humiliating conditions. According to the Letter of Complaint of 1785, the nobles received a corporate organization, which had a great influence on the local administrative apparatus. The authorities vigilantly followed public thought. They brought to trial the freethinker - the revolutionary A.N. Radishchev - the author of "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", and then imprisoned him in distant Yakutsk.

Successes in foreign policy gave a kind of brilliance to the Russian autocracy. The borders of the empire were pushed apart in the course of almost continuous military campaigns: in the west, it included Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, the southern part of the Eastern Baltic states in the west, after two Russian-Turkish wars, the Crimea and almost the entire North Caucasus. Meanwhile, the internal situation of the country was precarious. Finances were under the threat of constant inflation. The issue of banknotes (since 1769) covered the reserves of silver and copper coins accumulated in credit institutions. The budget, although reduced without a deficit, was supported only by internal and external loans. One of the causes of financial difficulties was not so much fixed costs and the maintenance of an expanded administrative apparatus, but the growth of arrears in taxes from the peasants. Crop failure and famine were repeated in individual provinces every 3-4 years, and in the whole country every 5-6 years. Attempts by the government and individual nobles to increase the marketability of agricultural production at the expense of better agricultural technology, which was taken care of by the Free Economic Union created in 1765, often only increased the corvée oppression of the peasants, to which they responded with unrest and uprisings.

The class system that had previously existed in Russia gradually became obsolete, especially in cities. The merchant class no longer controlled all trade. Among the urban population, it was increasingly possible to single out the classes characteristic of capitalist society - the bourgeoisie and the workers. They were formed not on a legal, but on a purely economic basis, which is characteristic of a capitalist society. In the ranks of entrepreneurs were many nobles, merchants, wealthy petty bourgeois and peasants. The workers were dominated by peasants and philistines. In 1825 there were 415 cities and towns in Russia. Many small towns were agricultural in nature. Gardening was developed in the Central Russian cities, wooden buildings prevailed. Due to frequent fires, it happened that entire cities were devastated.

The mining and metallurgical industry was located mainly in the Urals, Altai and Transbaikalia. St. Petersburg, Moscow and Vladimir provinces, and Tula became the main centers of metalworking and textile industry. By the end of the 20s of the 19th century, Russia was importing coal, steel, chemical products, linen fabrics.

Some factories began to use steam engines. In 1815, in St. Petersburg, at the Berd machine-building plant, the first domestic motor ship "Elizaveta" was built. From the middle of the 19th century, an industrial revolution began in Russia.

The system of serfdom, brought to the limit of non-economic exploitation, turned into a real “powder magazine”, under the building of a powerful empire.

The beginning of the reign of Alexander I. The very beginning of the 19th century was marked by a sudden change of faces on the Russian throne. Emperor Paul I, a tyrant, despot and neurasthenic, on the night of March 11-12, 1801, was strangled by conspirators from the highest nobility. The murder of Paul was committed with the knowledge of his 23-year-old son Alexander, who ascended the throne on March 12, stepping over his father's corpse.

The event of March 11, 1801 was the last palace coup in Russia. It completed the history of Russian statehood in the 18th century.

Not the best was pinned on the name of the new tsar: the “lower classes” for the weakening of the landlord oppression, the “tops” for even greater attention to their interests.

The noble nobility, who put Alexander I on the throne, pursued the old tasks: to preserve and strengthen the autocratic-serf system in Russia. The social nature of the autocracy as a dictatorship of the nobility also remained unchanged. However, a number of threatening factors that had developed by that time forced the Aleksandrov government to look for new methods for solving old problems.

Most of all, the nobles were worried about the growing discontent of the “lower classes”. By the beginning of the 19th century, Russia was a power vastly spread over 17 million square meters. km from the Baltic to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and from the White to the Black Sea.

About 40 million people lived in this space. Of these, Siberia accounted for 3.1 million people, the North Caucasus - about 1 million people.

The central provinces were most densely populated. In 1800, the population density here was about 8 people per 1 sq. km. verst. To the south, north and east of the center, population density has declined sharply. In the Samara Trans-Volga region, the lower reaches of the Volga and the Don, it was no more than 1 person per 1 sq. km. verst. Even less population density was in Siberia. Of the total population of Russia, there were 225,000 nobles, 215,000 clergy, 119,000 merchants, 15,000 generals and officers, and the same number of government officials. In the interests of these approximately 590 thousand people, the king ruled his empire.

The vast majority of the other 98.5% were disenfranchised serfs. Alexander I understood that although the slaves of his slaves would endure a lot, even their patience had a limit. Meanwhile, oppression and abuse then were boundless.

Suffice it to say that corvee in areas of intensive agriculture was 5-6, and sometimes all 7 days a week. The landowners ignored the decree of Paul I on a 3-day corvee and did not comply with it until the abolition of serfdom. Serfs then in Russia were not considered people, they were forced to work like draft animals, sold and bought, exchanged for dogs, lost at cards, put on a chain. This was unbearable. By 1801, 32 of the 42 provinces of the empire were covered by peasant unrest, the number of which exceeded 270.

Another factor that influenced the new government was pressure from noble circles, demanding that they return the privileges granted by Catherine II. The government was forced to take into account the spread of liberal European trends among the noble intelligentsia. The needs of economic development forced the government of Alexander I to reform. The dominance of serfdom, under which the manual labor of millions of peasants was free, hindered technical progress.

The industrial revolution - the transition from manual to machine production, which began in England in the 60s, and in France from the 80s of the XVIII century - in Russia became possible only from the 30s of the next century. Market links between different regions of the country were sluggish. More than 100 thousand villages and villages and 630 cities scattered across Russia did not know well how and how the country lives, and the government did not want to know about their needs. Russian communication routes were the longest and least well-maintained in the world. Until 1837, Russia did not have railways. The first steamboat appeared on the Neva in 1815, and the first steam locomotive only in 1834. The narrowness of the domestic market hindered the growth of foreign trade. Russia's share in world trade was only 3.7% by 1801. All this determined the nature, content and methods of the domestic policy of tsarism under Alexander I.

Domestic policy.

As a result of a palace coup on March 12, 1801, the eldest son of Paul I, Alexander I, ascended the Russian throne. Internally, Alexander I was no less a despot than Paul, but he was adorned with outward gloss and courtesy. The young king, unlike his parent, was distinguished by his beautiful appearance: tall, slender, with a bewitching smile on an angel-like face. In a manifesto published on the same day, he announced his commitment to the political course of Catherine II. He began by restoring the Charters of 1785 canceled by Paul to the nobility and cities, freeing the nobility and clergy from corporal punishment. Alexander I was faced with the task of improving the state system of Russia in a new historical situation. To conduct this course, Alexander I brought close to him the friends of his youth - European-educated representatives of the young generation of noble nobility. Together they formed a circle, which they called the "Secret Committee". In 1803, a decree on "free cultivators" was adopted. According to which the landowner, if desired, could free his peasants, endowing them with land and receiving a ransom from them. But the landowners were in no hurry to free their serfs. For the first time in the history of autocracy, Alexander discussed in the Unspoken Committee the question of the possibility of abolishing serfdom, but recognized it as not yet ripe for a final decision. More boldly than in the peasant question, there were reforms in the field of education. By the beginning of the 19th century, the administrative system of the state was in a state of decline. Alexander hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing a ministerial system of central government based on the principle of one-man command. A triple need compelled tsarism to reform this area: it required trained officials for a renewed state apparatus, as well as qualified specialists for industry and trade. Also, for the spread of liberal ideological ideas throughout Russia, it was necessary to streamline public education. As a result, for 1802-1804. the government of Alexander I rebuilt the entire system of educational institutions, dividing them into four rows (from bottom to top: parish, district and provincial schools, universities), and opened four new universities at once: in Dorpat, Vilna, Kharkov and Kazan.

In 1802, instead of the previous 12 colleges, 8 ministries were created: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. But even in the new ministries old vices settled. Alexander was aware of senators who took bribes. To expose them fought in him with the fear of dropping the prestige of the Governing Senate.

A fundamentally new approach to solving the problem was needed. In 1804, a new censorship charter was adopted. He said that censorship serves "not to restrict the freedom to think and write, but only to take decent measures against its abuse." The Pavlovian ban on the import of literature from abroad was lifted, and for the first time in Russia, the publication of works translated into Russian by F. Voltaire, J.J. Rousseau, D. Diderot, C. Montesquieu, G. Reynal, who were read by the future Decembrists. This ended the first series of reforms of Alexander I, praised by Pushkin as "the days of Alexander, a wonderful beginning."

Alexander I managed to find a person who could rightfully claim the role of a reformer. Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky came from the family of a village priest. In 1807, Alexander I brought him closer to himself. Speransky was distinguished by the breadth of his outlook and strict systemic thinking. He did not tolerate chaos and confusion. In 1809, on the instructions of Alexander, he drew up a draft of fundamental state reforms. Speransky put the principle of separation of powers - legislative, executive and judicial - as the basis of the state structure. Each of them, starting from the lower levels, had to act within the strictly defined framework of the law.

Representative assemblies of several levels were created, headed by the State Duma - the All-Russian representative body. The Duma was supposed to give opinions on the bills submitted for its consideration, and hear the reports of the ministers.

All powers - legislative, executive and judicial - were united in the State Council, whose members were appointed by the king. The opinion of the State Council, approved by the king, became law. Not a single law could come into force without discussion in the State Duma and the State Council.

The real legislative power, according to Speransky's project, remained in the hands of the tsar and the highest bureaucracy. The actions of the authorities, in the center and in the field, he wanted to put under the control of public opinion. For the silence of the people opens the way to the irresponsibility of the authorities.

According to Speransky's project, all Russian citizens who own land or capital enjoyed voting rights. Artisans, domestic servants and serfs did not participate in the elections. But they enjoyed the most important state rights. The main one was: "No one can be punished without a court verdict."

The implementation of the project began in 1810, when the Council of State was established. But then things stopped: Alexander more and more entered into the taste of autocratic rule. The higher nobility, having heard about Speransky's plans to endow serfs with civil rights, openly expressed dissatisfaction. All conservatives united against the reformer, starting with N.M. Karamzin and ending with A.A. Arakcheev, having fallen in favor with the new emperor. In March 1812, Speransky was arrested and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod.

Foreign policy.

By the beginning of the 19th century, two main directions in Russia's foreign policy were defined: the Middle East - the desire to strengthen its positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans, and the European - participation in the coalition wars of 1805-1807. against Napoleonic France.

Having become emperor, Alexander I restored relations with England. He canceled the preparations of Paul I for the war with England and returned from a campaign in India. The normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its policy in the region of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The situation here escalated in the 90s, when Iran began active expansion into Georgia.

The Georgian king repeatedly turned to Russia with a request for patronage. On September 12, 1801, a manifesto was adopted on the annexation of Eastern Georgia to Russia. The reigning Georgian dynasty lost its throne, and control passed to the viceroy of the Russian tsar. For Russia, the annexation of Georgia meant the acquisition of a strategically important territory for strengthening its positions in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

Alexander came to power in an extremely difficult situation for Russia. Napoleonic France sought dominance in Europe and potentially threatened Russia. Meanwhile, Russia was conducting friendly negotiations with France and was at war with England - the main enemy of France. This position, inherited by Alexander from Paul, did not suit the Russian nobles at all.

First, Russia maintained longstanding and mutually beneficial economic ties with England. By 1801, England absorbed 37% of all Russian exports. France, on the other hand, being incomparably less wealthy than England, has never provided Russia with such benefits. Secondly, England was a respectable legitimate monarchy, while France was a rebel country, thoroughly saturated with a revolutionary spirit, a country headed by an upstart, a rootless warrior. Thirdly, England was on good terms with other feudal monarchies of Europe: Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Spain. France, as a rebel country, opposed the united front of all other powers.

Thus, the primary foreign policy task of the government of Alexander I was to be the restoration of friendship with England. But tsarism was not going to fight with France either - the new government needed time to organize urgent internal affairs.

The coalition wars of 1805-1807 were fought over territorial claims and mainly over dominance in Europe, which was claimed by each of the five great powers: France, England, Russia, Austria, Prussia. In addition, the coalitionists aimed to restore in Europe, right down to France itself, the feudal regimes overthrown by the French Revolution and Napoleon. The coalitionists did not skimp on phrases about their intentions to free France "from the chains" of Napoleon.

Revolutionaries - Decembrists.

The war sharply accelerated the growth of the political consciousness of the noble intelligentsia. The main source of the revolutionary ideology of the Decembrists was the contradictions of Russian reality, that is, between the needs of national development and the feudal serf system, which hampered national progress. The most intolerant thing for the advanced Russian people was serfdom. It personified all the evils of feudalism - despotism and arbitrariness reigning everywhere, the civil lack of rights of the majority of the people, the economic backwardness of the country. From life itself, the future Decembrists drew impressions that pushed them to the conclusion: it was necessary to abolish serfdom, to transform Russia from an autocratic into a constitutional state. They began to think about this even before the war of 1812. The advanced nobles, including officers, even some generals and high-ranking officials, expected that Alexander, having defeated Napoleon, would give the peasants of Russia freedom, and the country - a constitution. As it turned out that the tsar would not concede to the country either one or the other, they became more and more disappointed in him: the halo of the reformer merk in their eyes, exposing his true face of a feudal lord and autocrat.

Since 1814, the Decembrist movement has taken its first steps. One after another, four associations are formed, which went down in history as pre-Decembrist ones. They had neither a charter, nor a program, nor a clear organization, nor even a definite composition, but were busy with political discussions about how to change the "evil of the existing order of things." They included very different people, who for the most part later became prominent Decembrists.

The "Order of Russian Knights" was headed by two offspring of the highest nobility - Count M.A. Dmitriev - Mamonov and Guards General M.F. Orlov. The "Orden" planned to establish a constitutional monarchy in Russia, but did not have an agreed plan of action, since there was no unanimity between the members of the "Order".

The "sacred artel" of the officers of the General Staff also had two leaders. They were the Muravyov brothers: Nikolai Nikolaevich and Alexander Nikolaevich - later the founder of the Union of Salvation. The “Holy artel” arranged its life in a republican way: one of the rooms of the officer barracks, where the members of the “artel” lived, was decorated with a “veche bell”, by the ringing of which all the “artel workers” gathered for conversations. They not only condemned serfdom, but also dreamed of a republic.

The Semyonov artel was the largest of the pre-Decembrist organizations. It consisted of 15-20 people, among whom stood out such leaders of mature Decembrism as S.B. Trubetskoy, S.I. Muravyov, I.D. Yakushkin. The artel lasted only a few months. In 1815, Alexander I found out about her and ordered "to stop gatherings of officers."

Historians consider the circle of the first Decembrist V.F. to be the fourth before the Decembrist organization. Raevsky in Ukraine. It arose around 1816 in the city of Kamenetsk - Podolsk.

All pre-Decembrist associations existed legally or semi-legally, and on February 9, 1816, a group of members of the Sacred and Semenov Artel, headed by A.N. Muravyov established a secret, first Decembrist organization - the Union of Salvation. Each of the members of the society had military campaigns of 1813-1814, dozens of battles, orders, medals, ranks, and their average age was 21 years.

The Union of Salvation adopted a charter, the main author of which was Pestel. The objectives of the charter were as follows: to destroy serfdom and replace the autocracy with a constitutional monarchy. The question was: how to achieve this? The majority of the Union proposed to prepare such a public opinion in the country that in time would force the tsar to promulgate the constitution. A minority sought more drastic measures. Lunin proposed his plan for regicide, which consisted in having a detachment of daredevils in masks meet the tsar's carriage and finish him off with daggers. The divisions within the salvation intensified.

In September 1817, when the guards were escorting the royal family to Moscow, the members of the Union held a meeting known as the Moscow Conspiracy. Here he offered himself as the king of the killer I.D. Yakushkin. But Yakushkin's idea was supported only by a few, almost everyone "was horrified to even talk about it." As a result, the Union banned the attempt on the king "due to the scarcity of means to achieve the goal."

Disagreements led the Salvation Union to a dead end. The active members of the Union decided to liquidate their organization and create a new, more cohesive, broad and effective one. So in October 1817, the "Military Society" was created in Moscow - the second secret society of the Decembrists.

The "military society" played the role of a kind of control filter. The main cadres of the Salvation Union and the main cadres and new people who needed to be checked were passed through it. In January 1818, the "Military Society" was dissolved and the Welfare Union, the third secret society of the Decembrists, began to operate instead. This union had over 200 members. According to the charter, the Welfare Union was divided into councils. The main one was the Root Council in St. Petersburg. Business and side councils in the capital and in the regions - in Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Poltava, Chisinau - were subordinate to her. All councils was 15.1820 can be considered a turning point in the development of Decembrism. Until that year, the Decembrists, although they approved of the results of the French Revolution of the 18th century, considered unacceptable its main means - the uprising of the people. Therefore, they doubted whether to accept the revolution in principle. Only the discovery of military revolution tactics finally made them revolutionaries.

The years 1824-1825 were marked by the intensification of the activities of the Decembrist societies. The task of preparing a military uprising was closely set.

It was supposed to start it in the capital - Petersburg, "like the center of all authorities and boards." On the periphery, members of the Southern Society must provide military support to the uprising in the capital. In the spring of 1824, as a result of negotiations between Pestel and the leaders of the Northern Society, an agreement was reached on unification and a joint action, which was scheduled for the summer of 1826.

During the summer camp in 1825, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and S.I. Muravyov-Apostol learned about the existence of the Society of United Slavs. At the same time, it was merged with the Southern Society.

The death of Emperor Alexander I in Taganrog on November 19, 1825, and the interregnum that arose created an environment that the Decembrists decided to take advantage of for an immediate action. Members of the Northern Society decided to start an uprising on December 14, 1825, the day on which the oath to Emperor Nicholas I was scheduled. The Decembrists were able to bring up to 3 thousand soldiers and sailors to Senate Square. The rebels were waiting for the leader, but S. P. Trubetskoy, who had been elected "dictator" of the uprising the day before, refused to appear on the square. Nicholas I pulled against them about 12 thousand troops loyal to him with artillery. With the onset of dusk, the formation of the rebels was dispersed by several volleys of buckshot. On the night of December 15, arrests of the Decembrists began. On December 29, 1825, in Ukraine, in the area of ​​the White Church, an uprising of the Chernigov regiment began. It was headed by S. I. Muravyov-Apostol. With 970 soldiers of this regiment, he made a raid for 6 days in the hope of joining other military units in which members of the secret society served. However, the military authorities blocked the region of the uprising with reliable units. On January 3, 1826, the insurgent regiment was met by a detachment of hussars with artillery and scattered with grapeshot. Wounded in the head S.I. Muraviev-Apostol was captured and sent to Petersburg. Until mid-April 1826, there were arrests of the Decembrists. 316 people were arrested. In total, more than 500 people were involved in the case of the Decembrists. 121 people appeared before the Supreme Criminal Court, in addition, there were trials of 40 members of secret societies in Mogilev, Bialystok and Warsaw. Placed “out of ranks” P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muraviev-Apostol and P.G. Kakhovsky were prepared for the "death penalty by quartering", replaced by hanging. The rest are divided into 11 categories; 31 people of the 1st category were sentenced "to death by cutting off the head", the rest to various terms of hard labor. More than 120 Decembrists suffered various punishments without trial: some were imprisoned in the fortress, others were placed under police supervision. In the early morning of July 13, 1826, the execution of the Decembrists sentenced to hanging took place, then their bodies were secretly buried.

Socio-political thought in the 20-50s of the XIX century.

The ideological life in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century took place in a political situation, difficult for progressive people, of increased reaction after the suppression of the Decembrist uprising.

The defeat of the Decembrists gave rise to pessimism and despair among a certain part of society. A noticeable revival of the ideological life of Russian society takes place at the turn of the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. By this time, the currents of socio-political thought had already clearly emerged, as protective-conservative, liberal-opposition, and a revolutionary-democratic one had been laid.

The ideological expression of the protective-conservative direction was the theory of "official nationality". Its principles were formulated in 1832 by S.S. Uvarov as "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality". The conservative-protective direction in the conditions of the awakening of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people also appealed to the "nationality". But "people" was interpreted by him as the adherence of the masses to the "original Russian principles" - autocracy and Orthodoxy. The social task of the "official nationality" was to prove the originality and legitimacy of the autocratic-feudal order in Russia. The main inspirer and conductor of the theory of "official nationality" was Nicholas I, and the Minister of Public Education, conservative professors and journalists acted as its zealous conductors. The theorists of the “official nationality” argued that the best order of things prevailed in Russia, consistent with the requirements of the Orthodox religion and “political wisdom”. alexander industrial empire political

"Official nationality" as an officially recognized ideology was supported by all the might of the government, preached through the church, royal manifestos, the official press, systemic public education. However, despite this, a huge mental work was going on, new ideas were born, which were united by the rejection of the Nikolaev political system. Among them, a significant place in the 30-40s was occupied by Slavophiles and Westernizers.

Slavophiles are representatives of the liberal-minded noble intelligentsia. The doctrine of the originality and national exclusivity of the Russian people, their rejection of the Western-European path of development, even the opposition of Russia to the West, the defense of autocracy, Orthodoxy.

Slavophilism is an opposition trend in Russian social thought, it had many points of contact with Westernism opposing it, rather than with the theorists of the "official nationality". The initial date for the formation of Slavophilism should be considered 1839. The founders of this trend were Alexei Khomyakov and Ivan Kireevsky. The main thesis of the Slavophiles is proof of the original way of development of Russia. They put forward the thesis: "The power of power is for the king, the power of opinion is for the people." This meant that the Russian people should not interfere in politics, leaving the monarch full power. The Nikolaev political system with its German "bureaucracy" was considered by the Slavophiles as a logical consequence of the negative aspects of the Petrine reforms.

Westernism arose at the turn of the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. Writers and publicists belonged to the Westerners - P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, V.G. Belinsky and others. They proved the similarity of the historical development of the West and Russia, argued that although Russia was late, it was following the same path as other countries, they advocated Europeanization. The Westerners advocated a constitutional-monarchical form of government of the Western European type. In contrast to the Slavophiles, the Westerners were rationalists, and they attached decisive importance to reason, and not to the primacy of faith. They asserted the very value of human life as a bearer of reason. The Westernizers used university departments and Moscow literary salons to propagate their views.

In the late 40s - early 50s of the XIX century, a democratic direction of Russian social thought was taking shape, representatives of this circle were: A.I. Herzen, V.G. Belinsky. This direction was based on social thought and philosophical and political doctrines that spread in the early 19th century in Western Europe.

In the 40s of the 19th century, various socialist theories began to spread in Russia, mainly those of C. Fourier, A. Saint-Simon and R. Owen. Petrashevists were active propagandists of these ideas. A young official of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, gifted and sociable, M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky, starting from the winter of 1845, began to gather on Fridays at his St. Petersburg apartment young people who were interested in literary, philosophical and political novelties. These were senior students, teachers, petty officials and novice writers. In March - April 1849, the most radical part of the circle began to form a secret political organization. Several revolutionary proclamations were written, and a printing press was purchased for their reproduction.

But at this point, the activities of the circle were interrupted by the police, who had been following the Petrashevites for about a year through an agent sent to them. On the night of April 23, 1849, 34 Petrashevites were arrested and sent to the Peter and Paul Fortress.

At the turn of the 40-50s of the 19th century, the theory of "Russian socialism" was taking shape. Its founder was A. I. Herzen. The defeat of the revolutions of 1848-1849 in Western European countries made a deep impression on him, gave rise to disbelief in European socialism. Herzen proceeded from the idea of ​​an "original" path of development for Russia, which, bypassing capitalism, would come to socialism through the peasant community.

Conclusion

For Russia, the beginning of the 19th century is the greatest turning point. The traces of this era are grandiose in the fate of the Russian empire. On the one hand, this is a life-long prison for most of its citizens, where the people were in poverty, and 80% of the population remained illiterate.

If you look from the other side, Russia at that time is the birthplace of the great, controversial, liberation movement from the Decembrists to the Social Democrats, which twice brought the country close to a democratic revolution. At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia saved Europe from the destructive wars of Napoleon and saved the Balkan peoples from the Turkish yoke.

It was at this time that brilliant spiritual values ​​began to be created, which to this day remain unsurpassed (the works of A.S. Pushkin and L.N. Tolstoy, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, F.I. Chaliapin).

In a word, Russia looked extremely diverse in the 19th century, it knew both triumphs and humiliations. One of the Russian poets N.A. Nekrasov said prophetic words about her that are still true today:

You are poor

You are abundant

You are powerful

You are powerless

The formation of the Russian Empire happened on October 22, 1721, according to the old style, or on November 2. It was on this day that the last Russian tsar, Peter the Great, declared himself emperor of Russia. This happened as one of the consequences of the northern war, after which the Senate asked Peter 1 to accept the title of Emperor of the country. The state received the name "Russian Empire". Its capital was the city of St. Petersburg. For all the time, the capital was transferred to Moscow only for 2 years (from 1728 to 1730).

Territory of the Russian Empire

Considering the history of Russia of that era, it must be remembered that at the time of the formation of the empire, large territories were annexed to the country. This became possible thanks to the successful foreign policy of the country, which was led by Peter 1. He created a new history, a history that returned Russia to the ranks of world leaders and powers whose opinion should be reckoned with.

The territory of the Russian Empire was 21.8 million km2. It was the second largest country in the world. In the first place was the British Empire with its numerous colonies. Most of them have retained their status to this day. The first laws of the country divided its territory into 8 provinces, each of which was controlled by a governor. He had full local authority, including the judiciary. Later, Catherine 2 increased the number of provinces to 50. Of course, this was done not by annexing new lands, but by crushing them. This greatly increased the state apparatus and rather significantly reduced the effectiveness of local government in the country. We will talk about this in more detail in the corresponding article. It should be noted that at the time of the collapse of the Russian Empire, its territory consisted of 78 provinces. The largest cities in the country were:

1. St. Petersburg.
2. Moscow.
3. Warsaw.
4. Odessa.
5. Lodz.
6. Riga.
7. Kyiv.
8. Kharkov.
9. Tiflis.
10. Tashkent.

The history of the Russian Empire is full of both bright and negative moments. In this time period, which lasted less than two centuries, a huge number of fateful moments were invested in the fate of our country. It was during the period of the Russian Empire that the Patriotic War, campaigns in the Caucasus, campaigns in India, European campaigns took place. The country developed dynamically. The reforms affected absolutely all aspects of life. It was the history of the Russian Empire that gave our country great commanders, whose names are on the lips to this day not only in Russia, but throughout Europe - Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov and Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. These illustrious generals forever inscribed their names in the history of our country and covered Russian weapons with eternal glory.

Map

We present a map of the Russian Empire, a brief history of which we are considering, which shows the European part of the country with all the changes that have occurred in terms of territories over the years of the existence of the state.

Population

By the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire was the largest country in the world in terms of area. Its scale was such that the messenger, who was sent to all corners of the country to report the death of Catherine 2, arrived in Kamchatka after 3 months! And this despite the fact that the messenger rode almost 200 km daily.

Russia was also the most populous country. In 1800, about 40 million people lived in the Russian Empire, most of them in the European part of the country. A little less than 3 million lived beyond the Urals. The national composition of the country was motley:

• East Slavs. Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians (Little Russians), Belarusians. For a long time, almost until the very end of the Empire, it was considered a single people.
• Estonians, Latvians, Latvians and Germans lived in the Baltics.
• Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Karelians, Udmurts, etc.), Altai (Kalmyks) and Turkic (Bashkirs, Tatars, etc.) peoples.
• The peoples of Siberia and the Far East (Yakuts, Evens, Buryats, Chukchi, etc.).

In the course of the formation of the country, part of the Kazakhs and Jews who lived on the territory of Poland, who, after its collapse, went to Russia, turned out to be its citizenship.

The main class in the country were peasants (about 90%). Other classes: philistinism (4%), merchants (1%), and the remaining 5% of the population were distributed among the Cossacks, the clergy and the nobility. This is the classic structure of an agrarian society. Indeed, the main occupation of the Russian Empire was agriculture. It is no coincidence that all the indicators that lovers of the tsarist regime are so proud of today are related to agriculture (we are talking about the import of grain and butter).

By the end of the 19th century, 128.9 million people lived in Russia, of which 16 million lived in cities, and the rest in villages.

Political system

The Russian Empire was autocratic in the form of its government, where all power was concentrated in the hands of one person - the emperor, who was often called, in the old manner, the king. Peter 1 laid down in the laws of Russia precisely the unlimited power of the monarch, which ensured the autocracy. Simultaneously with the state, the autocrat actually controlled the church.

An important point - after the reign of Paul 1, autocracy in Russia could no longer be called absolute. This happened due to the fact that Paul 1 issued a decree that canceled the system for the transfer of the throne, established by Peter 1. Peter Alekseevich Romanov, let me remind you, decided that the ruler himself determines his successor. Some historians today speak of the negative of this document, but this is precisely the essence of autocracy - the ruler makes all decisions, including about his successor. After Paul 1, the system returned, in which the son inherits the throne after his father.

Rulers of the country

Below is a list of all the rulers of the Russian Empire during the period of its existence (1721-1917).

Rulers of the Russian Empire

Emperor	Years of government
Peter 1	1721-1725
Catherine 1	1725-1727
Peter 2	1727-1730
Anna Ioannovna	1730-1740
Ivan 6	1740-1741
Elizabeth 1	1741-1762
Peter 3	1762
Catherine 2	1762-1796
Pavel 1	1796-1801
Alexander 1	1801-1825
Nicholas 1	1825-1855
Alexander 2	1855-1881
Alexander 3	1881-1894
Nicholas 2	1894-1917

All the rulers were from the Romanov dynasty, and after the overthrow of Nicholas 2 and the murder of himself and his family by the Bolsheviks, the dynasty was interrupted, and the Russian Empire ceased to exist, changing the form of statehood to the USSR.

Main dates

During its existence, and this is almost 200 years, the Russian Empire has experienced many important moments and events that have had an impact on the state and people.

• 1722 - Table of ranks
• 1799 - Suvorov's foreign campaigns in Italy and Switzerland
• 1809 - Accession of Finland
• 1812 - Patriotic War
• 1817-1864 - Caucasian War
• 1825 (December 14) - Decembrist uprising
• 1867 Sale of Alaska
• 1881 (March 1) the murder of Alexander 2
• 1905 (January 9) - Bloody Sunday
• 1914-1918 - World War I
• 1917 - February and October revolutions

End of the Empire

The history of the Russian Empire ended on September 1, 1917, according to the old style. It was on this day that the Republic was proclaimed. This was proclaimed by Kerensky, who by law did not have the right to do so, so declaring Russia a Republic can safely be called illegal. Only the Constituent Assembly had the authority to make such a declaration. The fall of the Russian Empire is closely connected with the history of its last emperor, Nicholas 2. This emperor had all the qualities of a worthy person, but had an indecisive character. It was because of this that the riots occurred in the country that cost Nicholas himself 2 lives, and the Russian Empire - existence. Nicholas 2 failed to severely suppress the revolutionary and terrorist activities of the Bolsheviks in the country. True, there were objective reasons for this. Chief among which, the First World War, in which the Russian Empire was involved and exhausted in it. The Russian Empire was replaced by a new type of state structure of the country - the USSR.