Prohibition of duels on pain of death. Duel in Russia
The history of the duel in Russia and the world
The time of the origin of the classical duel in Western Europe can be attributed to the era of the late Middle Ages, around the 14th century, when the knightly estate, the forerunner of the nobility, was finally formed and flourished with its concepts of honor, in many respects alien to the commoner or merchant. In the 16th century, duels had already assumed such a menacing scope and claimed so many lives that the kings began to fight this custom.
So, during the 16 years of the reign of Henry IV in France, from 7 to 8 thousand people were killed in duels. The famous Cardinal Richelieu forbade duels on pain of death, declaring that a nobleman could only sacrifice his life in the interests of the king.
Louis XIV in 1679, by a special edict, established a court of marshals to resolve all issues of honor. But nothing helped, including the statement that the king takes the offense of everyone who refuses to fight. The nobility stubbornly avoided interference by the state and the courts in matters of honor. Recognizing the right of the king to dispose of their life and service, it rejected the right to resolve issues related to honor and dignity. Refusal to fight throughout history continued to be considered an indelible shame, forever excluding decent people who refused from society. Realizing this, the monarchs themselves became as if constrained, and their struggle with duels was always inconsistent. A case is known when the French king Francis I himself challenged the German emperor Charles V to a duel.
The Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus, the famous commander of the first half of the 17th century, energetically pursued duels with his decrees. But when, offended by his slap in the face, the colonel of the army, unable to call the king himself, left the service and left the country, the king caught up with him at the border and himself handed him a pistol with the words: “Here, where my kingdom ends, Gustav Adolf is no longer king, and here, as an honest man, I am ready to give satisfaction to another honest man. In his words, as in a drop of water, all the duality of the attitude of most European sovereigns to the duel was reflected: as rulers of their subjects and legislators, they sought to put an end to the bloodshed, but as secular people with the same concepts of honor, they understood that they themselves would behave like this same.
American duels consisted in the fact that two opponents were given weapons and they went into the forest. From that moment began their hunt for each other. It was possible to lie in wait for the enemy in an ambush, and a shot in the back was not forbidden. Due to its immorality, the American duel did not take root in Russia.
The first duel in Russia can be considered a duel that took place in 1666 in Moscow between two hired foreign officers - the Scot Patrick Gordon (later Peter's general) and the Englishman Major Montgomery. But at that time, this custom had not yet penetrated among the Russians. Nevertheless, isolated precedents forced Princess Sophia, in a decree of October 25, 1682, which allowed all service people of the Moscow State to carry personal weapons, to stipulate a ban on duels.
Peter the Great, vigorously implanting European customs in Russia, hastened to prevent the spread of duels with cruel laws against them. Chapter 49 of the Petrine Military Regulations of 1715, called “Patent on fights and initiation of quarrels”, proclaimed: “No insult to the honor of the offended can in any way belittle”, the victim and witnesses of the incident are obliged to immediately report the fact of insult to the military court; non-delivery was also punished. For the challenge itself to a duel, deprivation of ranks and partial confiscation of property were supposed, for entering a duel and drawing weapons - the death penalty with complete confiscation of property, not excluding seconds. The “Military Article” of 1715, published as an appendix to the Peter the Great charter, in which two articles were devoted to duels, spoke even more definitely on this score. The first of them (“article 139”) stated: “All challenges, fights and fights through this are most severely prohibited. Thus, so that no one, no matter who he may be, high or low rank, a born local or foreigner, although another, who by words, deeds, signs or anything else was prompted and provoked to do so, would by no means dare to call his rival, below fight with him with pistols or swords. Whoever commits against this, of course, both the caller and whoever comes out, has to be executed, namely, hanged, although who among them will be wounded or killed ... then hang them by the feet after death.
The next article stipulated the same about the seconds: “If someone quarrels with someone and begs the second,” then the second “should be punished in the same way.” Despite this, Peter's laws against fights, which were formally in force until 1787, have never been applied in all these seventy years. The fact is that the very concept of honor in its European sense had not yet entered the consciousness of the Russian nobility, and there were practically no duels until the second half of Catherine's reign. It should not be forgotten that Peter's innovations in relation to Western customs and mores were too superficial, for the most part, the Russian nobility in terms of upbringing and internal culture for a long time did not differ much from the common people, and the desire to wash away the insult of honor with blood in a fair fight was alien to him. In addition, the fear of reprisals from the state was still exceptionally great; until 1762, an ominous “word and deed” acted. Therefore, when duels began to spread among the noble youth in the Catherine's era, representatives of the older generation reacted to this with unconditional condemnation. DI. Fonvizin, in his “Frank Confession in Deeds and My Thoughts,” recalled that his father considered the duel “a matter against conscience” and taught him: “A duel is nothing more than an act of violent youth.” And let us remember how Pyotr Grinev, the hero of Pushkin's "The Captain's Daughter", was scolded for a duel with Shvabrin by his father Andrei Petrovich Grinev in his letter: for you have proved that you are not yet worthy to carry a sword, which was granted to you for the defense of the fatherland, and not for duels with the same tomboys like you yourself.
Soon the times came when the youth of the nobility, still faithful to the oath and the throne, did not want to allow the state to interfere in matters of honor. Later, this formula was succinctly and concisely expressed by General Kornilov in his life credo: "Soul - to God, heart - to a woman, duty - to the Fatherland, honor - to no one."
In 1787, Catherine the Great published the "Manifesto on Combats". In it, duels were called a foreign plantation; the participants in the duel, which ended bloodlessly, were punished with a fine (not excluding seconds), and the offender, “like a violator of peace and tranquility,” was exiled to Siberia for life. For wounds and murder in a duel, punishment was imposed as for the corresponding intentional crimes.
Nevertheless, it was Catherine II who introduced the fashion for women's duels in Russia, who herself participated in such an event in her youth. In the Catherine era, women's duels were not fatal; the empress herself insisted that they be held only until the first blood. Most reports of deaths due to women date back to the 19th century.
Women's duels were carried out mainly on the basis of jealousy. But in the 17th century, at the European peak of the popularity of this type of showdown, the reason for such a duel could be quite insignificant, up to the same dresses for the “insulted and the offender”.
The duel reached its apogee in the first half of the 19th century. The prohibition of duels was reaffirmed in the Code of Criminal Laws of 1832 and the Military Criminal Charter of 1839, published under Nicholas I, which obligated military commanders "to try to reconcile those who quarrel and provide satisfaction to the offended by collecting from the offender."
Duels in Russia were distinguished by the exceptional rigidity of the conditions of unwritten codes: the distance ranged from 3 to 25 steps (most often 15 steps), there were even duels without seconds and doctors, one on one, they often fought to the death, sometimes they shot, standing alternately with their backs at the edge the abyss, so that in the event of a hit, the enemy would not survive (remember the duel between Pechorin and Grushnitsky in "Princess Mary"). Under such conditions, both opponents often died. Moreover, the regimental commanders, formally following the letter of the law, actually encouraged such a sense of honor among the officers and, under various pretexts, were released from those officers who refused to fight in a duel.
During a mobile duel in Russia, they almost always used a rule uncharacteristic for Western Europe, according to which the duelist, who shoots second, had the right to demand that the enemy approach the barrier, that is, in fact, stand as an unarmed target, allowing the opponent to approach the minimum distance, calmly aim and shoot. It is from this rule that the well-known expression “To the barrier!” Comes.
Nicholas I was disgusted with duels, his words are known: “I hate the duel. This is barbarism. In my opinion, there is nothing knightly in it. The Duke of Wellington destroyed her in the English army and did well." But it was precisely in the 20-40s of the 19th century that the high-profile duels of Pushkin with Dantes, Ryleev with Prince Shakhovsky, Griboyedov with Yakubovich, Lermontov with de Barant and Martynov fell.
With the advent of relative freedom of the press in Russia in the second half of the 19th century, the disputes around the duel were transferred to its pages. Opinions were divided between supporters of the duel and its opponents. The point of view of the supporters of the duel was most clearly expressed by Spasovich: “The custom of a duel is among civilization as a symbol of the fact that a person can and should, in certain cases, sacrifice his most precious good - life - for things that from a materialistic point of view have no meaning and meaning: for faith, homeland and honor. That is why this custom cannot be waived. It has the same basis as war."
Even under Emperor Nicholas I, according to the “Code of Criminal Punishments” of 1845, responsibility for duels was significantly reduced: seconds and doctors were generally exempted from punishment (unless they acted as instigators), and the punishment for duelists no longer exceeded - even in the event of death one of the opponents - imprisonment in the fortress from 6 to 10 years with the preservation of noble rights upon release. This provision once again reflected all the inconsistency of the legislation on duels. In practice, these measures were never applied either - the most common punishment for duelists was transfer to the active army in the Caucasus (as was the case with Lermontov for the duel with de Barant), and in case of death - demotion from officers to privates (as it was with Dantes after a duel with Pushkin), after which the perpetrators, as a rule, were quickly restored to the officer rank.
Courts of the society of officers by that time existed in many European armies, playing the role of something like comrades' courts. In the Russian army, they have existed semi-officially since Peter the Great (since 1721). The society of officers of the regiment could issue attestations to officers and was a powerful tool of public opinion in the military environment. They flourished especially under Alexander I, after 1822, when the emperor himself, in the analysis of the conflict between the court of the society of officers and the commander of the regiment, sided with the former. But in 1829, Nicholas I saw in the very fact of the existence of independent officer corporations, endowed with considerable rights, a means of undermining military discipline and banned their activities everywhere. Nevertheless, this measure, at first glance reasonable, turned out to be erroneous in practice, since the courts of the officers' society were a powerful means of moral, educational influence. Therefore, during the period of the "great reforms" of the 60s, they were (in 1863) restored and acquired an official status.
A regulation was issued on their organization (in the Navy - since 1864 - the courts of captains, in each naval division). When drafting this provision, many suggested that the issues of resolving the duel in each specific case be left to the discretion of these courts, but this proposal was rejected. Nevertheless, the penalties for fights became more and more lenient.
In his Notes of a Revolutionary, Prince P. A. Kropotkin describes one tragicomic incident. A certain officer was offended by Alexander III when he was his heir to the throne. Being in an unequal position and not being able to challenge the Tsarevich himself to a duel, the officer sent him a note demanding a written apology, otherwise threatening suicide. If the heir had been more sensitive, he would have apologized or himself given satisfaction to a person who did not have the opportunity to call him. But he didn't. After 24 hours, the officer fulfilled his promise exactly and shot himself. Enraged, Alexander II sharply scolded his son and ordered him to accompany the officer's coffin at the funeral.
The duelists themselves could take part in the duel, that is, the offender and the offended, the seconds, the doctor. Friends and relatives of the duelists could also be present, although it was not considered good form to turn the duel into a performance, gathering spectators at it.
Later dueling codes contained a direct prohibition to challenge close relatives to a duel, which included sons, fathers, grandfathers, grandchildren, uncles, nephews, brothers. The cousin might already have been called. Duels between the creditor and the debtor were also strictly forbidden.
The great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin became a victim of the duel. On January 27 (February 8), 1837, he was mortally wounded in a pistol duel by Georges de Gekkern (Dantes) and died two days later. According to Pushkinists, the fatal duel was at least the twenty-first challenge in the life of the poet; on his account there were 15 challenges (four duels took place, the rest ended in reconciliation, mainly through the efforts of Pushkin's friends), in six cases the challenge to a duel came from his opponents.
Just four years later, the duel caused the death of another outstanding Russian poet, Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Lermontov was killed on the spot by retired Major Nikolai Martynov. This duel can, among other things, serve as an example of the death of a man in a duel on an obviously not worth living occasion: Lermontov, who was generally distinguished by sharpness of judgment and a tendency to rather rudely ironize his interlocutors, made it a rule to harass Martynov with his ridicule, which in the end provoked a challenge. At the same time, Lermontov himself, obviously not taking the challenge seriously, fired to the side, while Martynov, driven to rage by his opponent's neglect, fired to kill.
The reaction to the last duels between Pushkin and Lermontov can serve as a typical example of the attitude towards the duel of Russian society and justice in the 19th century in general. Light was on the winning side in both cases; neither Dantes nor Martynov became objects of public censure. The court, applying the military article of Peter I, sentenced Dantes and Danzas (Pushkin's second) to death, but as they moved up the chain of command, the sentence was softened; as a result, Dantes was demoted to the rank and file and expelled from Russia, and Danzas, who was under arrest by the time the final decision was made, the arrest was extended for another two months, which limited the punishment. Martynov was sentenced to demotion and deprivation of all the rights of the state, but then the sentence was also significantly reduced and, as a result, was limited to a three-month arrest in the guardhouse and church repentance.
In 1894, at the very end of the reign of Alexander III, fights were officially allowed.
If in the second half of the 19th century the number of duels in the Russian army clearly began to decline, then after the official permission in 1894, their number again sharply increases. Of all 322 duels, 315 took place with pistols and only 7 with swords or sabers. Of these, in 241 duels (that is, in 3/4 of the cases) one bullet was fired, in 49 - two, in 12 - three, in one - four and in one - six bullets; the distance varied from 12 to 50 steps. The intervals between the insult and the duel ranged from one day to ... three years, but most often - from two days to two and a half months (depending on the duration of the trial by the court of honor).
Ilya Ehrenburg in his memoirs "People, Years, Life" describes a duel between two famous poets - Nikolai Gumilyov and Maximilian Voloshin - in the pre-revolutionary years, the reason for which was one of the pranks for which Voloshin was a great master; during the duel, Voloshin fired into the air, and Gumilyov, who considered himself insulted, missed. By the way, a shot in the air was allowed only if the one who called for the duel fired, and not the one who called - otherwise the duel was not recognized as valid, but only a farce, since none of the opponents endangered themselves.
After 1917, in the proletarian state, such concepts as honor and duty were at first generally declared to be remnants of the exploitative past. Duels were replaced by denunciations, the concept of state benefit overshadowed everything else, the nobility was replaced by the fanaticism of some and the prudence of others.
Nowadays, dueling is officially allowed only in one country - Paraguay, but only if both duelists are registered donors.
Known are the calculations of General I. Mikulin, made by him on the basis of official documents. If in the second half of the 19th century the number of duels in the Russian army clearly began to decline, then after the official resolution in 1894 (“Rules on the consideration of quarrels that occur among officers.” Order of the military department No. 118 of May 20, 1894) their number rises sharply again.
For comparison: from 1876 to 1890, only 14 cases of officer duels reached the court (in 2 of them, the opponents were acquitted); since May 20, 1894 to May 20, 1910, 322 officer duels took place, of which 256 - by decision of the courts of honor, 47 - with the permission of military commanders and 19 unauthorized ones (none of them reached the criminal court). Or, in other words: 251 duels - between the military, 70 - between the military and civilians, once military doctors met at the barrier.
Every year there were from 4 to 33 fights in the army (on average - 20).
FIRST DUEL. Probably the first duel in Russia can be considered a duel between two hired foreign officers - the Scot commander of the Butyrsky regiment Patrick Gordon (future associate of the young Peter I, General and Rear Admiral, Patrick Leopold Gordon; Pyotr Ivanovich Gordon, born 1635, Scotland - 1699, Russia) and the Englishman Major Montgomery. It happened in 1666 in Moscow. However, even isolated cases of duels forced Princess Sophia, in a decree of October 25, 1682, which allowed all service people of the Moscow State to carry personal weapons, to stipulate a ban on duels. Peter the Great, vigorously implanting European customs in Russia, hastened to prevent the spread of duels with cruel laws against them. Catherine the Great also believed, who in 1787 issued a strict “Manifesto on duels” and directly forbade dueling Nicholas I in the “Code of Criminal Laws” of 1832 and the “Military Criminal Charter” of 1839.
HONOR - TO ANYONE. The youth of the nobility, still faithful to the oath and the throne, did not allow the state to interfere in matters of honor. Later, this formula was succinctly and concisely expressed by General Kornilov in his life credo: "Soul - to God, heart - to a woman, duty - to the Fatherland, honor - to no one."
STATISTICS. So, the data for the years 1894-1910.
PARTICIPANTS: 4 generals, 14 staff officers, 187 captains and staff captains, 367 junior officers (lieutenants, second lieutenants and ensigns), 72 civilians.
DUELYANTS: 1 lieutenant participated in three duels, 4 lieutenants and 1 second lieutenant fought twice. Two times they fought with the military and two civilians.
RESULTS 99 insult duels: 9 ended in a serious outcome, 17 - with a slight injury and 73 - without bloodshed.
RESULTS 183 heavy insult duels: 21 ended in a serious outcome, 31 - with a slight injury and 131 - without bloodshed. Thus, the death of one of the opponents or a serious injury ended in an insignificant number of fights - 10-11% of the total.
WEAPON: Of all 322 duels, 315 took place with pistols and only 7 with swords or sabers. In 5 cases they were cut on checkers, in two cases espadrons were used. The remaining 315 duels took place with firearms, in which 15 people died and 17 were seriously injured.
NUMBER OF SHOTS: Of these, in 241 fights (i.e., in 3/4 of the cases) one bullet was fired, in 49 - two, in 12 - three, in one - four and in one - six bullets; the distance ranged from 12 to 50 paces. The intervals between the insult and the duel ranged from one day to ... three years (!), But most often - from two days to two and a half months (depending on the duration of the trial by the court of honor).
IN THE WEST. The duel originated not in Russia, but in Western Europe, around the 14th century, when the knightly estate, the forerunner of the nobility, with its concepts of honor, in many respects alien to the commoner or merchant, finally formed and flourished. In the 16th century, duels had already assumed such a menacing scope and claimed so many lives that the kings began to fight this custom. So, during the 16 years of the reign of Henry IV in France, from 7 to 8 thousand people were killed in duels. In the second half of the 16th century in France, on average, up to a thousand duels with a fatal outcome took place a year. And the total number of duels in some years reached 20 thousand. The famous Cardinal Richelieu forbade duels on pain of death, declaring that a nobleman could only sacrifice his life in the interests of the king. Louis XIV in 1679, by a special edict, established a court of marshals to resolve all issues of honor.
"FLOW". In the 40s and 50s of the 19th century, a kind of flowering took place, a kind of cult of duels in Russia. In addition to the historical duels between Pushkin and Baron Gekkern-Dantes (1837), Lermontov with Baron de Barante (1840) and Martynov (1841), there were many other duels in Russia during these years. Here is the fight between the Decembrist poet Ryleev and Prince Shakhovsky (1824) and Count Novosiltsev with the Decembrist Chernov (1825), which ended in the death of both, and Beklemishev with Neklyudov.
WOMEN.
ITALY. Duels between women were rare in Russia, although they also happened. Western Europe is different. In 1552, an extraordinary event took place in Naples - two ladies, Isabela de Carazzi and Diambra de Pettinella fought a duel in the presence of the Marquis de Vast. The duel took place over a young man named Fabio de Zeresola. The duel of women for the love of a man was a very exciting event, because the exact opposite thing - a fight over a woman has always been a common occupation of men. This duel shocked the Neapolitans so much that the rumor about it did not subside for a long time. This romantic story about the duel of two young ladies in love with one man inspired the Spanish artist José (Giusep) Rivera (Ribera) during his stay in Italy in 1636 to create a masterpiece - the canvas "Women's Duel", which is one of the most exciting paintings at the Prado Gallery.
ENGLAND. 1792. Lady Almeria Braddock and Mrs Elphinstone are known for the so-called petticoat duel. Lady Almeria Braddock felt insulted by Mrs. Elphinstone and challenged her to a duel in London's Hyde Park, after their outwardly noble conversation about Lady Almeria's true age. The ladies first exchanged shots from their pistols, in which Lady Almeria's hat was damaged. They then continued to duel with swords until Lady Elphinstone received a wound in her arm and agreed to write an apology to Lady Almeria.
FRANCE. In France, in the 17th century, during the time of Cardinal Richelieu, the swords of the Marquis de Nesle and the Countess de Polignac were crossed, and in 1701 - the Countess Rocca and the Marquise Bellegarde. Under Louis XIV, a brilliant swordswoman, the opera singer Maupin, stabbed several men to death at a ball. In 1868, two French women shot at Bordeaux, one of them was seriously wounded. In 1872, the Frenchwoman Madame Shacheru, having learned that her husband did not demand satisfaction, challenged the offender to a duel and seriously wounded him in a duel with swords. And in 1888, in a duel with swords, the Frenchwoman de Valzière wounded the American Shilby.
DUELS LITERARY. 18 nobles from 9 works. Suffice it to recall the confrontation between Pushkin's Onegin and Lensky ("Eugene Onegin"), Shvabrin and Grinev ("The Captain's Daughter"), Silvio and Count B. ("The Shot"), Lermontov's Pechorin and Grushnitsky ("Princess Mary"), Turgenev's Bazarov and Kirsanov ("Fathers and Sons"), Tolstoy's Bezukhov and Dolokhov ("War and Peace"), Chekhov's Laevsky and von Koren ("Duel"), Kuprin's Romashov and Nikolaev ("Duel"), Stavrogin and Gaganov from Dostoevsky's "Demons". LITERARY SUMMARY: Lensky, Grushnitsky and Lieutenant Romashov (3 out of 18) were killed, Grinev and Dolokhov were seriously wounded, Kirsanov was wounded, a bullet grazed Stavrogin's little finger.
BREATHERS. Among the Breters, that is, duelists by vocation, all the famous names belonged to officers. The already mentioned Tolstoy-American, the gloomy Yakubovich, Prince Fyodor Gagarin, nicknamed Adam's Head, Mikhail Lunin, Dorokhov, Count Fyodor Uvarov-Cherny, Pyotr Kaverin, at different periods of their hectic life, served for the most part in the elite guards regiments. Even among the above literary heroes, there are 7 officers - Grinev, Shvabrin, Pechorin, Grushnitsky, Dolokhov, Nikolaev and Romashov. Yes, and A.S. Pushkin himself shot himself in duels several times.
DUEL OF THE GENERALS. According to the stories of Pavel Tuchkov, brother of General Nikolai Tuchkov. Absolutely incredible (the most abstract from the textbook rules of the duel) was the duel between two generals: Nikolai Tuchkov 1st and Prince Mikhail Dolgoruky, which took place in Finland during the Russo-Swedish War of 1808-1809. Lieutenant General Tuchkov commanded one of the advanced corps, in which, by order of Emperor Alexander the First, a favorite of the court arrived, a member of the imperial family, Major General Dolgoruky, without five minutes (his wedding was planned with the king’s sister, Grand Duchess Elizabeth Pavlovna).
The 28-year-old prince showed Tuchkov a paper signed by the emperor, from which it allegedly followed that it was he, Dolgoruky, who would lead the columns of the Tuchkov corps into battle. Tuchkov reasonably noted that he was subordinate to his immediate commander, Count Buxgevden, and in addition, he was a senior in rank. Word for word - it came to a challenge. Tuchkov judiciously remarked that it was not worthwhile for two generals in the midst of hostilities to sort things out like boys. Wouldn't it be better to walk at the head of the infantry lines towards the Swedish positions during tomorrow's attack? Dolgoruky agreed. As soon as the columns, led by Tuchkov and Dolgoruky, moved into battle, one of the first cores hit the prince exactly. At the court they were very grieved. Moreover, before they learned the sad news, they had already sent an order to Finland appointing Dolgoruky as a corps commander instead of Tuchkov and a personal letter from Alexander the First, who informed Prince Mikhail Petrovich of his final consent to marry the Grand Duchess.
[From the article "Duel in Russian"] ... On May 13, 1894, Emperor Alexander III approved the Rules for the Proceeding of Quarrels that Occur among Officers drawn up by the War Ministry [Order on the military department No. 118 of May 20, 1894], which the ardent champion of the duel, General A. Kireev, called "the great royal mercy." By allowing fights in the army, Alexander III, and after him Nicholas II, hoped to improve officer morals. At the same time, the military department began to develop dueling rules. This work dragged on for almost twenty years, and only in 1912. saw the light of the "Manual for conducting matters of honor among officers", prepared by Major General I. Mikulin.
In fact, however, there were more duels in the army. According to some estimates, about a third of the fights took place bypassing the court of the officers' society. This means that to the 322 duels indicated by Mikulin, we must add about 100 more, when officers converged who did without regimental courts of honor. Sometimes in such cases, opponents converged at the barrier, the day before sentenced by the court to reconciliation. In a word, no matter how hard the state tried to put the duel under the rule of law, it did not succeed. Neither in the time of Peter, who forbade fights, nor in the time of the last kings, who, albeit with reservations, encouraged fights.
The history of duels began in ancient times. In any case, the "father of historians" Herodotus mentions them, describing the mores of the Thracian tribes. At the other end of Europe - among the Vikings - duels have also long been public. As a rule, the duel in Ancient Scandinavia took place on the top of the hill and lasted "until the first blood". Later, the loser was obliged to pay off a fairly significant amount. Naturally, professional breters soon appeared, who provoked duels. Then fights were banned.
duelist's honor
However, the bans made the duels even more romantic. The aristocrats were especially sophisticated. The first dueling code was published in France by the Comte de Chateauvillers in 1836. The delay to the place of the duel should not exceed 15 minutes, the duel began 10 minutes after the arrival of all participants. The manager, elected from two seconds, offered the duelists to make peace for the last time. In case of their refusal, he explained to them the conditions of the duel, the seconds marked the barriers and, in the presence of opponents, loaded pistols. The seconds stood parallel to the battle line, the doctors behind them. All actions were performed by the opponents at the command of the manager. At the end of the battle, the opponents shook hands with each other.
A shot in the air was allowed only if the person called for the duel fired, and not the one who sent him the cartel (challenge), otherwise the duel was considered invalid, a farce, since none of the opponents endangered themselves. There were several options for a duel with pistols.
Usually the opponents, remaining motionless at a distance, alternately fired at the command. A fallen wounded opponent could shoot prone. It was forbidden to cross the barriers. The most dangerous was the duel variant, when the opponents, standing motionless at a distance of 25-35 steps, fired at each other at the same time on the command to count "one-two-three". In this case, both opponents could die.
As for the duel with melee weapons, here it was most difficult for the seconds to regulate the course of the duel due to its mobility and excitement of the opponents. In addition, in fights with melee weapons (epee, saber, espadron), the inequality of those fighting in such a complex art as fencing has always been stronger. Therefore, duels with pistols were widespread, as more equalizing the opportunities and chances of duelists.
Of the officers– to the rank and file
In France, where hundreds of proud nobles died in duels, duels were banned in the 16th century. In Russia, Peter I issued tough laws against dueling, providing for punishment up to the death penalty. However, these laws were not applied in practice. Almost until the end of the 18th century, duels were rare in Russia, and in France, although Cardinal Richelieu forbade duels on pain of death, they continued ...
During the era of Catherine II in Russia, duels among the youth of the nobility began to spread. In 1787, Catherine II published the "Manifesto on duels", according to which, for a bloodless duel, the offender was threatened with a life exile in Siberia, and wounds and murder in a duel were equated with criminal offenses.
Nicholas I generally treated duels with disgust. Duelists were usually transferred to the active army in the Caucasus, and in the event of a fatal outcome, they were demoted from officers to privates.
But no laws helped! Moreover, duels in Russia were distinguished by exceptionally cruel conditions: the distance between the barriers was usually 7-10 meters, there were even duels without seconds and doctors, one on one. So often the fights ended tragically.
It was during the reign of Nicholas I that the loudest, most famous duels took place with the participation of Ryleev, Griboyedov, Pushkin, Lermontov. And this despite the harsh laws on responsibility for the duel.
trembling hand
At his first duel, Pushkin fought with his lyceum friend Kuchelbecker, whose challenge turned out to be a kind of review of Pushkin's epigrams. When Kyukhlya, who was the first to shoot by lot, began to take aim, Pushkin shouted to his second: “Delvig! Get in my place, it's safer here. Kuchelbecker got angry, his hand trembled, and he shot through the cap on Delvig's head! The comical nature of the situation reconciled the opponents.
Here is what Liprandi, a friend of Pushkin from Chisinau, recalls about another duel between the poet and a certain colonel Starov, which, according to Pushkin scholars, took place on January 6, 1822 according to the old style: “The weather was terrible, the snowstorm was so strong that it was impossible to see subject." Naturally, both opponents missed. The opponents wished to continue the duel, once again moving the barrier, but "the seconds resolutely opposed, and the duel was postponed until the blizzard stopped." However, the opponents froze and dispersed without waiting for favorable meteorological conditions. Thanks again to the efforts of Pushkin's friends, the duel was never resumed. Note that Starov was a well-known sniper in Russia ...
In the spring of that year, in Chisinau, and then throughout Russia, they discussed for a long time the next duel of the poet with Zubov, an officer of the general staff. Pushkin came to the place of the duel with cherries, which he calmly ate while the enemy took aim. Zubov missed, and Pushkin refused to shoot and asked: “Are you satisfied?” Zubov tried to hug him, but Pushkin remarked: "This is superfluous." Pushkin later described this episode in Belkin's Tales.
"My life belongs to the proletariat"
By the way, many famous people were duelists. So, once a young Leo Tolstoy challenged Ivan Turgenev to a duel. Fortunately, the duel did not take place. And the anarchist revolutionary Bakunin challenged Karl Marx himself to a duel when he spoke disparagingly about the Russian army. Interestingly, Bakunin was an anarchist and an opponent of any regular army, but he stood up for the honor of the Russian uniform, which he wore in his youth as an artillery ensign. However, Marx, who in his youth fought with swords with students of the University of Bonn more than once and was proud of the scars on his face, did not accept Bakunin's challenge. The author of Capital replied that "his life now belongs not to him, but to the proletariat!"
And the last example: before the revolution, the poet Gumilyov challenged the poet Voloshin to a duel, offended by his draw. Voloshin fired into the air, but Gumilyov missed.
In general, at the beginning of the 20th century (until 1917), hundreds of officer duels took place in Russia, and almost all of them were with pistols, but only a few duels ended in the death or serious injury of the duelists.
It is known that the duel came to Russia from the West. It is believed that the first duel in Russia took place in 1666 in Moscow. Two foreign officers fought... Scotsman Patrick Gordon (who later became Peter's general) and an Englishman Major Montgomery (eternal rest to his ashes...).
Duels in Russia have always been a serious test of character. Peter the Great, although he planted European customs in Russia, understood the danger of duels and tried to immediately stop their occurrence with cruel laws. In which, I must admit, I succeeded. There were almost no duels among Russians during his reign.
Chapter 49 of the Petrovsky Military Regulations of 1715, called “Patent on duels and initiation of quarrels”, proclaimed: “No insult to the honor of the offended can in any way belittle”, the victim and witnesses of the incident are obliged to immediately report the fact of insult to the military court ... even failure to report was punished. For the challenge itself to a duel, deprivation of ranks and partial confiscation of property were supposed, for entering a duel and drawing weapons - the death penalty! With the complete confiscation of property, not excluding the seconds. At the same time, on the instructions of Peter I, "Societies of Officers" were created to deal with cases that discredited the honor and dignity of officers.
Peter III banned corporal punishment for the nobility. Thus, a generation appeared in Russia for which even a sideways glance could lead to a duel.
Empress Catherine II signed her "Manifesto on duels" dated April 21, 1787, which reflected Peter's view of duels as a crime against state interests. In this manifesto, the one who created the conflict by his actions was subject to punishment. Repeated participation in duels entailed the deprivation of all rights, status and a link to an eternal settlement in Siberia. Later, the link was replaced by demotion to the rank and file and imprisonment in a fortress.
Yet punitive measures have not been able to eradicate duels. After the end of the Patriotic War of 1812, fights in Russia intensified. The heyday of duels was during the reign of Alexander I and they continued until Alexander III. It is interesting to note that Emperor Paul I seriously proposed to resolve interstate conflicts not through war, but by holding a duel between emperors ... in Europe, this proposal did not receive support. In 1863, on the basis of the Societies of Officers, the Courts of Societies of Officers were created in the regiments and, with them, the Councils of Mediators. Councils of mediators (3-5 people) were elected by the officers' meeting from among the staff officers and were intended to clarify the circumstances of quarrels, attempts to reconcile the parties and authorize the fights. Two years later, the Courts of the Society of Officers were also created in the Maritime Department in the person of the "General Meetings of Flag Officers and Captains" (Court of Flag Officers). Emperor Alexander III approved the "Rules for dealing with quarrels that happened among the officers" (order by the Military Department N "18 of May 20, 1894). Thus, fights were legalized in Russia for the first time.
Call
Traditionally, duels began with a challenge. The reason for it was an insult, when a person believed that he had the right to challenge his offender to a duel. This custom was associated with the concept of honor. It was quite broad, and its interpretation depended on the specific case. At the same time, material disputes about property or money were resolved in the courts among the nobility. If the victim filed an official complaint against his offender, he no longer had the right to challenge him to a duel. The rest of the fights were arranged because of public ridicule, revenge, jealousy, etc. To offend a person, according to the concepts of that era, could only be equal to him in social status. That is why duels were held in narrow circles: between nobles, military men, etc., but it was impossible to imagine a battle between a tradesman and an aristocrat. If a junior officer challenged his superior to a duel, the latter could reject the challenge without damage to his honor, although there are cases when such battles were nevertheless organized.
Basically, when the dispute concerned people from different social strata, their lawsuit was resolved exclusively in court. In the event of an insult, one could calmly demand an apology from the offender. In case of refusal, a notification followed that seconds would arrive at the enemy. A challenge to a duel was carried out in writing, orally, or by inflicting a public insult. The call could be sent within 24 hours (unless there were good reasons). After the call, personal communication between the opponents ceased and further communication was carried out only through seconds.
A written challenge (cartel) was delivered to the offender by the cartelist. Among the ways of inflicting public insult was the phrase: "You are a scoundrel." When physically insulted, a glove was thrown at the enemy or a blow was struck with a stack (cane). Depending on the severity of the insult, the offended person had the right to choose: only weapons (with a slight insult, these could be sarcastic statements, public attacks against appearance, manner of dressing, etc.); weapons and a kind of duel (with an average, such could be an accusation of deceit or obscene language); weapons, type and distance (in case of serious, aggressive actions were classified as such: throwing objects, slaps, blows, betrayal of the wife).
There were cases when a person insulted several people at once. The rules of duels in the 19th century in Russia in this case established that only one of them could challenge the offender to a duel (if there were several calls, only one of your choice was satisfied). This custom ruled out the possibility of reprisals against the offender by the efforts of many people.
Only the duelists themselves, their seconds, as well as the doctor could attend the duel in Russia. The 19th century, whose rules were based on generally accepted principles, is considered the heyday of this tradition. Women, as well as men with serious injuries or illnesses, could not become participants in the battle. There was also an age limit. Calls from older people over 60 were not welcome, although there were exceptions. If a person who was not able or did not have the right to participate in a duel was insulted, he could be replaced by a "patron". As a rule, these people were the next of kin. The honor of a woman theoretically could be defended with a weapon in the hands of any man who volunteered, especially if the insult was inflicted on her in a public place. When a wife was unfaithful to her husband, her lover turned out to be in a duel. If the husband cheated, he could be called by a relative of the girl or any other man who wished.
Seconds
The next step after the call was the choice of seconds. Each side was allocated an equal number of seconds (1 or 2 people each). The duties of the seconds included the development of mutually acceptable conditions for the duel, the delivery of weapons and a doctor to the place of the duel (if possible from each side), preparing the place for the duel, setting up barriers, monitoring compliance with the terms of the duel, and so on. The conditions of the duel, the procedure for their observance, the results of the meeting of the seconds and the course of the duel were to be recorded.
The minutes of the meeting of the seconds were signed by the seconds of both sides and approved by the opponents. Each protocol was made in two copies. The seconds elected elders from among themselves, and the elders elected the manager, who was charged with the functions of the organizer of the duel.
When developing duel conditions, the choice was agreed upon:
place and time;
Weapons and the sequence of their use;
Final terms of the duel.
For the duel, sparsely populated places were used, the duel was scheduled for the morning or noon hours. The permitted weapons for duels were sabers, swords or pistols. For both sides, the same type of weapon was used: with an equal length of blades or a single pistol caliber with a difference in barrel length of no more than 3 cm.
Sabers and swords could be used in a duel on their own or as weapons of the first stage, after which the transition to pistols followed.
The final conditions of the duel were: to the first blood, to the wound, or after using up the prescribed number of shots (from 1 to 3).
Neither side was to wait more than 15 minutes for the other to arrive at the duel site. If a participant was late for more than 15 minutes, his opponent could leave the place of the duel, and the one who was late in this case was recognized as deviant and deprived of honor.
The duel was to begin 10 minutes after the arrival of all participants.
The participants and seconds who arrived at the place of the duel greeted each other with a bow. The second - manager made an attempt to reconcile opponents. If reconciliation did not take place, then the manager instructed one of the seconds to read the challenge aloud and ask the opponents whether they undertake to comply with the conditions of the duel? After that, the manager explained the conditions of the duel and the commands given.
Melee duel
Standard options for duels were established in the aristocratic environment by the 19th century. First of all, the nature of the duel was determined by the weapon used. Duels in Russia in the 18th century were carried out with swords, sabers and rapiers. In the future, this generally accepted set was preserved and became a classic. Dueling with bladed weapons could be mobile or stationary. In the first version, the seconds marked out a long area or path, on which the free movement of fighters was allowed. Retreats, detours and other fencing techniques were allowed. A motionless duel assumed that the opponents were located at a striking distance, and the battle was fought by the duelists who stood in their places. The weapon was held in one hand, and the second remained behind the back. It was impossible to beat the enemy with their own limbs.
The seconds prepared the places for the duel, taking into account equal opportunities for each duelist (the direction of the rays of the sun, wind, etc.).
Most often, identical weapons were used, but with the consent of the parties, each opponent could use his own blade. The duelists took off their uniforms and remained in their shirts. Watches and the contents of the pockets were handed over to the seconds. The seconds had to make sure that there were no protective objects on the body of the duelists that could neutralize the blow. The unwillingness to undergo this examination was regarded as avoiding the duel.
At the command of the manager, the opponents took their places, determined by the seconds. The seconds stood on both sides of each duelist (at a distance of 10 steps) according to the principle: friend or foe; someone else's. Doctors were at a distance from them. The second-manager stood in such a way as to see both the participants and the seconds. Opponents were placed against each other and the command was given: "Three steps back." The duelists were given weapons. The manager commanded: "Get ready for battle" and then:
"Begin". If during the duel one of the duelists fell or dropped his weapon, then the attacker had no right to take advantage of this.
If necessary, to stop the fight, the manager, in agreement with the second of the opposite side, raised his melee weapons up and commanded "Stop". The fight stopped. Both junior seconds continued to stay with their clients, while the seniors negotiated. If in vehemence the duelists continued the duel, then the seconds were obliged to parry the blows and separate them.
When one of the duelists received a wound, the fight stopped. Doctors examined the wound and gave a conclusion about the possibility or impossibility of continuing the fight.
If one of the duelists violated the rules or conditions of the duel, as a result of which the enemy was wounded or killed, then the seconds drew up a protocol and initiated prosecution of the perpetrator.
Fights with pistols
Dueling pistols ("gentleman's set") were used for the fights. Pistols were bought new, and only exclusively smooth-bore pistols were suitable for duels, and not shot, i.e. no smell of gunpowder from the barrel. The same pistols were not fired again in duels. They were kept as a souvenir. This rule was necessary in order not to give any of the opponents a noticeable advantage.
Participants arrived at the place of the fight with their untouched pair sets. The rules for dueling pistols in Russia stated that the choice between sets was made by drawing lots.
The loading of pistols was carried out by one of the seconds in the presence and under the control of the others. Pistols were drawn by lot. Having received pistols, the duelists, holding them with their barrels down with the triggers not cocked, occupied the places established by lot. The seconds stood at a distance from each duelist. The manager asked the duelists:
"Ready?" - and, having received an affirmative answer, commanded:
"To fight." At this command, the triggers were cocked, the pistols rose up to head level. Then followed the command: "Start" or "Shoot."
There were several options for duels with pistols:
1. Stationary duel (duel without movement).
a) The right of the first shot was determined by lot. Dueling distance was chosen in the range of 15-30 steps. According to the dueling code, the first shot must be fired within one minute, but usually, by agreement between the parties, it was fired after 3-10 seconds. after the start of the countdown. If, after a specified period of time, a shot did not follow, then it was lost without the right to repeat. The return and subsequent shots were fired under the same conditions. The seconds were counted out loud by the manager or one of the seconds. A pistol misfire was counted as a perfect shot.
b) The right of the first shot belonged to the offended. The conditions and order of shots remained the same, only the distance increased - up to 40 steps.
c) Shooting on readiness.
The right of the first shot was not established. The shooting distance was 25 steps. Opponents with pistols in their hands stood in designated places with their backs to each other. At the command "Start" or "Shoot", they turned to face each other, cocked the hammers and began to aim. Each duelist fired on readiness in a time interval of 60 seconds (or by agreement from 3 to 10 seconds). The second manager loudly counted the seconds. After counting "sixty" the command followed: "Stop". Blind duels were also practiced. In such a duel, men fired shots over their shoulders, standing with their backs to each other.
d) Dueling on a signal or command.
The duelists, being in their places face to face at a distance of 25-30 steps from each other, had to shoot simultaneously at the agreed signal. Such a signal was clapping hands given by the second-manager with an interval of 2-3 seconds. After cocking the hammers, the pistols rose up to the level of the head. With the first clap, the pistols lowered, with the second - the duelists aimed and fired at the third clap. This type of duel was rarely used in Russia and was widely used in France and Germany.
2. Mobile duel
a) Rectilinear approach with stops.
The starting distance was 30 paces. The distance between the barriers is at least 10 paces. Being in the starting positions face to face, the opponents received pistols. Seconds took places on both sides of the barriers in pairs with a lateral removal of 10 steps. At the command of the second-manager "Cock up" - the triggers were cocked, the pistols were raised up to the level of the head. At the command "Forward March", the duelists began to move towards the barrier. At the same time, in the interval from the starting point to the barrier, they could stop, aim and shoot. The shooter was obliged to remain in his place and wait for a return shot for 10-20 seconds. The one who fell from wounds had the right to shoot while lying down. If during the exchange of shots none of the duelists was injured, then, in accordance with the rules, the exchange of shots could occur three times, after which the duel was terminated.
b) Complicated approach to stops.
This duel is a variation of the previous one. Initial distance up to 50 steps, barriers within 15-20 steps. At the command "To battle", the opponents cocked their hammers and raised their pistols up to head level. Movement towards each other on the command "Forward March" occurred in a straight line or in a zigzag with an amplitude of 2 steps. Duelists were given the opportunity to shoot on the move or with a stop. The shooter was obliged to stop and wait for a return shot, for the production of which 10-20 seconds were allotted (but not more than 30 seconds). A duelist who fell from a wound was given twice as much time to return a shot.
c) Opposite-parallel approach.
The approach of the duelists took place along two parallel lines, 15 steps apart from each other.
The initial positions of the duelists were located obliquely, so that at opposite points of their lines, each of them saw the enemy in front and to his right at a distance of 25-35 steps.
The seconds took up positions on the right behind their client's opponent, at a safe distance. Having taken their place on the parallel lines, which had been drawn by lot, the duelists received pistols and, at the command “Forward march”, cocked the triggers and began to move along their lines on the opposite side (it was also allowed to remain in their place).
For a shot, it was necessary to stop, and after it, to wait for a response in a motionless position for 30 seconds.
Some duels were arranged according to the principle of Russian roulette. It was resorted to in case of irreconcilable hostility between the arrows. Opponents stood at a distance of 5-7 steps. Of the two pistols, only one was loaded. Weapons were distributed by lot. Thus, the rivals maximized the risk and randomness of the outcome. The lot gave equal chances, and it was on this principle that the rules of dueling with pistols were based. The rules also included a barrel-to-mouth duel. The difference with the previous one was only that both pistols were loaded. Such showdowns often ended in the death of both shooters.
The ending
If in the end the duelists remained alive, at the end they shook hands with each other. The perpetrator apologized at the same time. Such a gesture did not humiliate him in any way, since the honor was restored by a duel. Apologies after the fight were considered only a tribute to tradition and the norm of the code. Even when duels in Russia were distinguished by cruelty, the seconds after the end of the battle necessarily drew up a detailed protocol of what had happened. It was certified by two signatures. The document was necessary to confirm that the duel took place in full accordance with the norms of the code.
180 years ago, the infamous duel between Pushkin and Dantes took place on the outskirts of St. Petersburg. The offended poet died from a mortal wound, however, like hundreds of young nobles. On the day the “Russian sun” begins to set, Life talks about the rules of satisfaction and the peculiarities of the “high” murder in old Russia.
- You need to be shown in the circus: which of you is a nobleman? A laughing stock! Apparently, your mother often disappeared in the evenings, ”said Pierre, grinning.
- You will answer to the bullet! The only freak here is you. The second will be in the morning. May the Lord rest your soul!
Insulted, Yaroslav turned around and slammed the door of the hall. He heard Pierre's laughter behind him. However, the heir to an impoverished noble family is already used to ridicule on the sly. The young man immediately went to Varvarka to a friend of his father - the old man was supposed to become a second.
- Gun? Sword?
- Gun.
How will you shoot?
— To death.
The second went to the offender. Already there it was decided that the nobles would shoot point-blank, from three steps. Both young people wanted a quick resolution of the issue and, as they emphasized, a fateful one. The seconds wrote down the rules for the upcoming duel, and also set the time for the duel - 8 in the morning, in the forest south of the capital. It was decided to choose the exact place along the road: it was necessary to find a platform no shorter than 40 steps in length and no narrower than twelve.
Yaroslav could not sleep. This was his first duel, and it was to the death. Already at 7:45 he, together with a second, was waiting for the defendant. The latter arrived a couple of minutes before the fight - he, as he himself claimed, managed to drink coffee and take care of his wife.
The place has been chosen. The seconds calculate the size of the barrier - three steps, at a distance of which the gentlemen will shoot at the same time.
- One, two, three... Shoot!
— Poof!
The offended Yaroslav was the first to fire, not having yet passed the agreed number of steps. Seems to have hit...
No, it didn't.
“Come to the beginning of the barrier, come on.Outstripped! Now you have no, according to the code, the right to shoot. Wait for the opponent's shot, - the enemy second told the young man.
The bullet ruined the already worn officer's tunic, passing between the ribs. Unlike Yaroslav, the self-satisfied Pierre shot himself more than once and understood perfectly well that just let the newly-minted "murderer" ... He would shoot first, and - by. And then - just a shot in the chest. According to the rules.
The seconds recorded that Yaroslav was "mortally wounded." In general, there was an unsuccessful hunt.
I don't hear from a stranger. Rules from the Gallic Rooster
The culture of the duel came to Russia later than to Europe. Despite the fact that Peter I issued a cruel decree on hanging for a duel (everyone involved in this, including seconds), there were no “fights of honor” in his era.
- Peter issued a decree on the hanging of duelists, as he foresaw that sooner or later European fashion would come to the country. Indeed, in the Russian army there were many foreigners who came from countries in which duels are practiced. First of all, this is France, - says the historian and author of the book "Duels and duelists. Panorama of metropolitan life" Yakov Gordin. - Classical duels (those that took place according to Western rules) in Russia began in the Catherine era. The beginning of the Russian dueling tradition is illustrated by the story of Alexander Pushkin "The Captain's Daughter" - where the main character Pyotr Grinev and his antagonist Alexei Shvabrin fight with swords.
Until 1832, the rules of the Russian duel had an oral tradition, because there were no written codes even in Europe. P The first real and detailed dueling code appeared in 1836 in Paris under the pen of Count Chatovillard. According to his rules, “high” fights between nobles began to take place in Russia as well.
Initially, melee weapons were used in fights: sabers, swords. But then, from the beginning of the 19th century, pistols (single-shot triggers) became popular. Because of this, there were fewer duels, at least those that were initially considered deadly. After all, they died infrequently from a sword - after one injection, satisfaction could be accomplished - but from a bullet ... Most often, the wounds were fatal.
The classic duel meant that the opponents each appointed two seconds - they would have to choose the place, the time of the duel, the barrier (distance in steps), and also make sure that the satisfaction took place according to all the rules. One of the seconds, according to the French code, was to be a doctor in order to help the duelist in case of emergency. At the same time, it is worth emphasizing that the presence of a healer was initially considered a prerequisite for a duel. After all, the matter is not in the killing of the enemy, but in the fact of the duel itself, that is, canonically, the death of the enemy should not have become an end in itself.
-Duel was possible only in case of insulting noble honor. No squabbles, quarrels, political disputes were a sufficient reason for the emergence of a duel, says historian Yakov Gordin. - The seconds played a very important role: after the duel challenge, the rivals no longer had the right to communicate and meet, and all negotiations were conducted by the main assistants. Before the duel, they wrote down the set of rules and conditions of the meeting, and after that - the protocol of the duel.
However, in Russia all these rules were violated. Doctors were not called, the second was most often alone, and the barrier was too risky.
The duels were more dangerous than in Europe. As a rule, the barrier between duelists was only 6-8 steps, an extremely rare occurrence - 10. Often there were duels point-blank, at a distance of three steps. These were deadly fights. The Pushkin duel is a vivid example of such a battle, the end of which could only be in one case: one of the participants was either mortally wounded or killed on the spot, Gordin noted.
According to the generally accepted dueling code, only an equal could be challenged to a duel, that is, an insult from a non-nobleman was not considered as such. The answer in this case, the representative of the high class had to seek through the courts. A duel between non-nobles (for example, raznochintsy) was not considered as such.
The code also implied that the rules of the duel would be written down on paper by the seconds. Nevertheless, in Russia even this rule was violated - a vivid example of this is the duel between Mikhail Lermontov and Nikolai Martynov.
“And at the battle of Pushkin there was only one second on both sides, and there should have been two people,” emphasizes Gordin. - The code was transmitted orally, each officer knew its rules thoroughly.
A certain cruelty is inherent in the Russian duel: if one of the duelists, not reaching the point of the barrier, makes a shot, and an unsuccessful one, then the second participant in the duel has the right to call the first close to the barrier and shoot him as a stationary target. Experienced duelists often used this maneuver. They tried to provoke the opponent to the first shot (for example, pointedly aimed at him. - Approx. Life.) And thus ensured their victory . Pushkin's behavior in a duel is no exception: he hoped that Dantes would shoot first, but his expectations were not met - his opponent turned out to be a good shooter.
Bullet fool, or accomplices in murder
For a duel, one could lose one's life, and therefore the nobles invented ways to hide the mortal duel. Therefore, satisfaction usually took place in an area remote from the city, so that in the event of the death of one of the participants, it could be said that he was wounded while hunting.
If information about the duel became known to the authorities, then the opponents were handed over to the tribunal. For example, if the participants in the duel were officers, then a commission was appointed in the regiment, which examined the case and imposed punishment, usually very cruel (for example, according to Peter's decree). Then the decision was transferred to the regiment commander, and then to the division commander - they had the right to commute the sentence.
The last resort was, of course, the emperor - he looked through every dueling case. Usually officers were exiled to the Caucasus or taken into custody (for three months in a fortress. - Note. Life). Sometimes, when the emperor was out of sorts, the defendant could be demoted to the soldiers or killed.
Despite the fact that initially the duel was a way to restore honor among the nobles, from the end of the 19th century such fights began to take place among representatives of other classes.
Under Alexander III, duels became officially allowed by decision of the officers' meeting, and then, in 1912, the Russian dueling code (based on domestic experience) by Vasily Durasov appeared, which, in fact, generalized all the then common duel rules. However, according to historians, by that time no one wanted to shoot themselves.