Laboratory work number 11 in biology. Tasks for monohybrid crossing

Family name and general features of the family

plant number

Species features

species name

first plant

Second plant

Width

C. Linnaeus

I.Kant

A.N. Radishchev

A.Kaverznev

Lab #14

"Identification of anthropogenic changes in the ecosystems of their area"

Target: identify anthropogenic changes in the ecosystems of the area and assess their consequences.

Working process.

Consider maps-schemes of the territory in different years.

To reveal anthropogenic changes in the local ecosystems.

Assess the consequences of human economic activity.

Lab #15

"Drawing up schemes for the transfer of substances and energy (food chains)"

Target: To consolidate the ability to correctly determine the sequence of organisms in the food chain, compose a trophic web, and build a pyramid of biomass.

Working process.

1. Name the organisms that should be in the missing place of the following food chains:

From the proposed list of living organisms, make up a food web: grass, berry bush, fly, titmouse, frog, snake, hare, wolf, decay bacteria, mosquito, grasshopper. Indicate the amount of energy that passes from one level to another.

Knowing the rule of energy transfer from one trophic level to another (about 10%), build a biomass pyramid of the third food chain (task 1). Plant biomass is 40 tons.

Conclusion: what do the rules of ecological pyramids reflect?

Lab No. 16

"Comparative characteristics of natural ecosystems and agroecosystems of the Kupinsky district"

3. Make a conclusion about the measures necessary to create sustainable artificial ecosystems.

Lab No. 17

"Study of changes in ecosystems on biological models (aquarium)"

Target: on the example of an artificial ecosystem, to trace the changes that occur under the influence of environmental conditions.

Working process.

What conditions must be observed when creating an aquarium ecosystem.

Describe the aquarium as an ecosystem, indicating abiotic, biotic environmental factors, ecosystem components (producers, consumers, decomposers).

Make food chains in the aquarium.

What changes can occur in the aquarium if:

falling direct sunlight;

lives in an aquarium a large number of fish.

5. Draw a conclusion about the consequences of changes in ecosystems.

Lab No. 18

"Solving environmental problems"

Target: Learn how to solve simple environmental problems.

Working process.

Task number 1.

Knowing the ten percent rule, calculate how much grass you need to grow one eagle weighing 5 kg (food chain: grass - hare - eagle). Conditionally accept that at each trophic level only representatives of the previous level are always eaten.

Task number 2.

On an area of ​​100 km 2 annual partial felling of the forest. At the time of the organization of the reserve, 50 moose were noted in this territory. After 5 years, the number of moose increased to 650 heads. After another 10 years, the number of moose decreased to 90 heads and stabilized in subsequent years at the level of 80-110 heads.

Determine the number and density of the moose population:

a) at the time of the creation of the reserve;

b) 5 years after the creation of the reserve;

c) 15 years after the creation of the reserve.

Task #3

The total content of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is 1100 billion tons. It has been established that in one year vegetation assimilates almost 1 billion tons of carbon. Approximately the same amount is released into the atmosphere. Determine how many years all the carbon in the atmosphere will pass through organisms (the atomic weight of carbon is 12, oxygen is 16).

Decision:

Let's calculate how many tons of carbon are contained in the Earth's atmosphere. We make up the proportion: (molar mass of carbon monoxide M (CO 2) = 12 t + 16 * 2t = 44 t)

44 tons of carbon dioxide contains 12 tons of carbon

In 1,100,000,000,000 tons of carbon dioxide - X tons of carbon.

44/1 100,000,000,000 = 12/X;

X \u003d 1,100,000,000,000 * 12/44;

X = 300,000,000,000 tons

There are 300,000,000,000 tons of carbon in the Earth's modern atmosphere.

Now we need to find out how long it takes for the amount of carbon to "pass" through living plants. To do this, it is necessary to divide the result obtained by the annual consumption of carbon by plants on the Earth.

X = 300,000,000,000 tons / 1,000,000,000 tons per year

X = 300 years.

Thus, all atmospheric carbon in 300 years will be completely assimilated by plants, will be part of them and will again fall into the Earth's atmosphere.

Lab No. 19

“Analysis and assessment of the consequences of one’s own activities in the environment,

Global environmental problems and ways to solve them"

Target: learn about the consequences of human activities in the environment.

Working process.

Fill in the table:

3. Answer the question: What ecological problems, in your opinion the most serious and require an immediate solution? Why?

Workshop on biology for grade 11. The final workshop includes 6 practical works.

"Lab No. 1"

Laboratory work No. 1 Identification of variability in individuals of the same species.

Objective:

To form the concept of the variability of organisms, learn to find signs of hereditary variability in representatives of different plant varieties and animal breeds.

Working process:

1. Consider the proposed images of organisms belonging to the same species. Highlight Features external structure, common to all representatives of the same species, as well as structural features in which they differ.

2. Analyze on what grounds the selection was carried out, as a result of which the varieties and breeds indicated in the table were formed.

Sort the options into columns.

fruit sizes

milk yield

appearance

chemical composition of milk

chemical composition of fruits

character (aggressive or good-natured)

muscle mass

crop ripening rate

special behavioral responses

3. To control knowledge, give answers to test questions:

1) The different morphological forms of representatives of the same species shown to you are:

a) genetic mutations

b) the result of artificial selection

c) the result of natural selection

2) Varieties of plants artificially bred by man are called:

a) strains

c) breeds

e) populations

3) Varieties of animals artificially bred by man are called:

a) strains

c) breeds

e) populations

4) As a result of artificial selection, organisms:

a) acquire useful properties for humans

b) acquire properties that ensure personal adaptability to the environment

c) lose the ability to reproduce

4. Draw a conclusion from the work done.

Apple varieties

Breeds of cows

View document content
"Lab No. 2"

Lab #2

Identification of adaptations in organisms to the environment

Target:

To form the concept of the adaptability of organisms to the environment, to consolidate the ability to highlight the features of the adaptability of organisms to the environment.

Working process:

1. Consider the proposed images of some plants. Compare the features of their structure. Draw conclusions about their living conditions.

2. Determine what features of the structure and physiology of a succulent plant (cactus) cause various adaptive effects to its habitat. Place the relevant characteristics in the appropriate cells of the attached table.

3. Determine what features of the structure and physiology of an aquatic plant (water lily) cause various adaptive effects to its habitat. Place the relevant characteristics in the appropriate cells of the attached table.

4. Consider the proposed images of two animals adapted to aquatic environment habitats (a representative of the class Cartilaginous fish - a shark, and a representative of the class Mammals - a dolphin). Analyze which common features the structure and functioning of their organisms determine their adaptability to an aquatic lifestyle. Analyze what features of the structure and functioning of their organisms, which determine this fitness, are specific for each of these species. To do this, enter the characteristics proposed by the scenario in the required cells of the table.

5. To control knowledge, give answers to test questions.

6. Make a conclusion about the adaptability of organisms to their environment.

Knowledge control:

Cactus spines, water lily and strawberry leaves:

are homologous organs

are similar bodies

perform the same functions

have the same structure

The similarity of the body shape of a shark and a dolphin is an example:

divergence of features

feature convergence

aromorphosis

speciation

The peculiarity of the structure and lifestyle, reflecting the adaptation of the species to a complex of factors external environment, is called

external structure

internal structure

life form

environmental group

The adaptability of organisms belonging to different systematic groups to the same environmental conditions can be manifested in:

genetic similarity

morphological similarity

The adaptability of organisms to the environment arises and is fixed:

in the process of natural selection

in the process of artificial selection

inadvertently due to mutations

The adaptability of organisms to the environment is characterized by:

body shape features

features of the internal structure of organisms

features of animal behavior

all of the above

View document content
"Lab No. 5"

Lab #5

Comparative characteristics of natural ecosystems (meadow) and agrosystems (wheat field).

Objective: Learn to compare natural biogeocenosis and agrocenosis; explain the reasons for the revealed similarities and differences; be able to predict changes in them.

Working process:

1. Assess the driving forces that shape natural and agroecosystems.

2. Appreciate some quantitative characteristics ecosystems.

3. Fill in table 1.

4. Compare the natural ecosystem and agrocenosis shown in the figures, choosing the correct characteristics from the proposed options.

5. Fill in table 2.

Table 1.

: more, less, the action is aimed at achieving maximum productivity, affects the ecosystem, the effect on the ecosystem is minimal, does not affect the ecosystem, more, less.

Table 2.

Select from the list and add to the table: the presence of consumers in the food chains, an obligatory element of the food chain is a person, characterized by a variety of ecological niches, part of the energy or chemicals can be artificially introduced by a person, inorganic substances extracted by producers are returned to the soil, the presence of producers in the food chains, the presence of decomposers in the food chains, the ecosystem stable over time without human intervention, inorganic substances extracted by producers from the soil are removed from the ecosystem, the ecosystem is rapidly destroyed without human intervention, man has little effect on the cycle of substances, the main source of energy is the sun.

Conclusion.

View document content
"Lab #3"

Practical work 3.

"Analysis and evaluation of the ethical aspects of the development of some research in biotechnology"

Target: to analyze the development aspects of some research in biotechnology.

Equipment: theoretical material on the topic, task cards.

Working process.

Exercise 1.

Study the theoretical material on the topic "Biotechnology is ..." and fill in the table:

Task 2. Study the theoretical material on the topic "Cloning" and fill in the table:

Draw conclusions about the ethical issues of biotechnology.

Application for PR 3 (theoretical material)

Technologies with the prefix "bio"

Genetic and cell engineering
Genetic and cell engineering are the most important methods (tools) underlying modern biotechnology.
Cell engineering methods are aimed at constructing a new type of cell. They can be used to recreate a viable cell from individual fragments. different cells, to combine whole cells belonging to different species to form a cell that carries the genetic material of both original cells, and other operations.

Genetic engineering methods are aimed at constructing new combinations of genes that do not exist in nature. As a result of the use of genetic engineering methods, it is possible to obtain recombinant (modified) RNA and DNA molecules, for which individual genes (encoding the desired product) are isolated from the cells of an organism. After certain manipulations with these genes, they are introduced into other organisms (bacteria, yeast and mammals), which, having received a new gene (genes), will be able to synthesize end products with properties changed in the direction necessary for a person. In other words, Genetic Engineering allows to obtain the specified (desired) qualities of modified or genetically modified organisms or the so-called "transgenic" plants and animals.

Genetic engineering has found its greatest application in agriculture and in medicine.

People have always thought about how to learn to control nature, and were looking for ways to obtain, for example, plants with improved qualities: with high yields, larger and tastier fruits, or with increased cold resistance. Since ancient times, selection has been the main method used for this purpose. It has been widely used to date and is aimed at creating new and improving existing varieties of cultivated plants, breeds of domestic animals and strains of microorganisms with traits and properties valuable to humans.

Breeding is based on the selection of plants (animals) with pronounced favorable traits and further crossing of such organisms, while genetic engineering allows you to directly interfere with the genetic apparatus of the cell. It is important to note that in the course of traditional breeding it is very difficult to obtain hybrids with the desired combination of useful traits, since very large fragments of the genomes of each of the parents are transferred to the offspring, while genetic engineering methods make it possible to work most often with one or several genes, and their modifications do not affect the work of other genes. As a result, without losing others useful properties plants, it is possible to add one or more useful traits, which is very valuable for creating new varieties and new forms of plants. It became possible to change in plants, for example, resistance to climate and stress, or their sensitivity to insects or diseases common in certain regions, to drought, etc. Scientists hope even to obtain such species of trees that would be resistant to fires. Extensive research is underway to improve nutritional value various agricultural crops such as corn, soybeans, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, etc.

Historically, there are "three waves" in the creation of genetically modified plants:

The second wave - the beginning of the 2000s - the creation of plants with new consumer properties: oilseeds with a high content and a modified composition of oils, fruits and vegetables with a high content of vitamins, more nutritious grains, etc.

Nowadays, scientists are creating "third wave" plants that will appear on the market in the next 10 years: vaccine plants, bioreactor plants for the production of industrial products (components for various kinds plastic, dyes, technical oils, etc.), plants - drug factories, etc.

Genetic engineering work in animal husbandry has a different task. A completely achievable goal with the current level of technology is the creation of transgenic animals with a specific target gene. For example, the gene for some valuable animal hormone (for example, growth hormone) is artificially introduced into a bacterium, which begins to produce it in large quantities. Another example: transgenic goats, as a result of the introduction of the corresponding gene, can produce a specific protein, factor VIII, which prevents bleeding in patients with hemophilia, or an enzyme, thrombokinase, which promotes the resorption of a blood clot in blood vessels, which is important for the prevention and treatment of thrombophlebitis in of people. Transgenic animals produce these proteins much faster, and the method itself is much cheaper than the traditional one.

At the end of the 90s of the XX century. US scientists have come close to obtaining farm animals by cloning embryonic cells, although this direction still needs further serious research. But in xenotransplantation - the transplantation of organs from one type of living organisms to another - undoubted results have been achieved. The greatest success has been obtained by using pigs with transferred human genes in the genotype as donors of various organs. In this case, there is a minimal risk of organ rejection.

Scientists also suggest that gene transfer will help reduce a person's allergy to cow's milk. Targeted changes in the DNA of cows should also lead to a reduction in the content of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol in milk, which will make it even more beneficial to health.
The potential danger of the use of genetically modified organisms is expressed in two aspects: food safety for human health and environmental consequences. Therefore, the most important step in the creation of a genetically modified product should be its comprehensive examination in order to avoid the risk that the product contains proteins that cause allergies, toxic substances or some new hazardous components.

The value of biotechnology for medicine .
In addition to its wide application in agriculture, a whole branch of the pharmaceutical industry, called the “DNA industry”, has emerged on the basis of genetic engineering and is one of the modern branches of biotechnology. More than a quarter of all medicines currently used in the world contain ingredients from plants. Genetically modified plants are cheap and safe source to obtain fully functional medicinal proteins (antibodies, vaccines, enzymes, etc.) for both humans and animals. Examples of the application of genetic engineering in medicine are also the production of human insulin through the use of genetically modified bacteria, the production of erythropoietin (a hormone that stimulates the formation of red blood cells in bone marrow. The physiological role of this hormone is to regulate the production of erythrocytes depending on the body's need for oxygen) in cell culture (i.e. outside the human body) or new breeds of experimental mice for scientific research.

The development of genetic engineering methods based on the creation of recombinant DNA has led to the "biotechnological boom" that we are witnessing. Thanks to the achievements of science in this area, it has become possible not only to create "biological reactors", transgenic animals, genetically modified plants, but also to carry out genetic certification (a complete study and analysis of the human genotype, usually carried out immediately after birth, to determine the predisposition to various diseases, a possible inadequate (allergic) reaction to certain drugs, as well as a tendency to certain types activities). Genetic certification makes it possible to predict and reduce the risks of cardiovascular and oncological diseases, to investigate and prevent neurodegenerative diseases and aging processes, to analyze the neurophysiological characteristics of a person at the molecular level), the diagnosis of genetic diseases, the creation of DNA vaccines, gene therapy various diseases etc.

In the 20th century, in most countries of the world, the main efforts of medicine were aimed at combating infectious diseases, reducing infant mortality and increasing life expectancy. Countries with more developed health systems have been so successful in this path that they have found it possible to shift the focus to treatment. chronic diseases, diseases of cardio-vascular system and oncological diseases, since it was these groups of diseases that gave the largest percentage of deaths.

At the same time, new methods and approaches were being sought. It was significant that science proved the significant role of hereditary predisposition in the occurrence of such widespread diseases as ischemic disease heart disease, hypertension, peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum, psoriasis, bronchial asthma, etc. It became obvious that for the effective treatment and prevention of these diseases encountered in the practice of doctors of all specialties, it is necessary to know the mechanisms of interaction between environmental and hereditary factors in their origin and development, and, consequently, further progress in health care is impossible without the development of biotechnological methods in medicine. In recent years, it is these areas that are considered priority and are rapidly developing.

The relevance of conducting reliable genetic research based on biotechnological approaches is also obvious because more than 4,000 hereditary diseases are known to date. About 5-5.5% of children are born with hereditary or congenital diseases. At least 30% of infant mortality during pregnancy and in the postpartum period is due to congenital malformations and hereditary diseases. After 20-30 years, many diseases begin to appear, to which a person had only a hereditary predisposition. This happens under the influence of various environmental factors: living conditions, bad habits, complications after illnesses, etc.

At present, practical opportunities have already appeared to significantly reduce or correct the negative impact of hereditary factors. Medical genetics has explained that many gene mutations are caused by interactions with adverse conditions environment, and, consequently, by solving environmental problems, it is possible to achieve a reduction in the incidence of cancer, allergies, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, mental illness and even some infectious diseases. At the same time, scientists were able to identify the genes responsible for the manifestation of various pathologies and contributing to an increase in life expectancy. When using the methods of medical genetics, good results were obtained in the treatment of 15% of diseases, with respect to almost 50% of diseases, a significant improvement is observed.

Thus, significant achievements in genetics have made it possible not only to reach the molecular level of studying the genetic structures of the body, but also to reveal the essence of many serious human diseases, to come close to gene therapy.

In addition, on the basis of medical genetic knowledge, opportunities have appeared for early diagnosis hereditary diseases and timely prevention of hereditary pathology.

The most important area of ​​medical genetics at present is the development of new methods for diagnosing hereditary diseases, including diseases with a hereditary predisposition. Today, no one is surprised by pre-implantation diagnostics - a method for diagnosing an embryo at an early stage of intrauterine development, when a geneticist, extracting only one cell of a future child with a minimal threat to his life, makes an accurate diagnosis or warns of hereditary predisposition to a particular disease.

As a theoretical and clinical discipline, medical genetics continues to develop rapidly in various directions: the study of the human genome, cytogenetics, molecular and biochemical genetics, immunogenetics, developmental genetics, population genetics, and clinical genetics.
Thanks to the increasing use of biotechnological methods in pharmaceuticals and medicine, a new concept of "personalized medicine" has appeared, when the treatment of the patient is carried out on the basis of his individual, including genetic features, and even the drugs used in the treatment process are made individually for each individual patient, taking into account his condition. The appearance of such drugs became possible, in particular, due to the use of such a biotechnological method as hybridization (artificial fusion) of cells. The processes of cell hybridization and the production of hybrids have not yet been fully studied and developed, but it is important that with their help it became possible to produce monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are special "protective" proteins that are produced by cells of the human immune system in response to the appearance of any foreign agents (called antigens) in the blood: bacteria, viruses, poisons, etc. Monoclonal antibodies have an extraordinary, unique specificity, and each antibody recognizes only its own antigen, binds to it and makes it safe for humans. In modern medicine, monoclonal antibodies are widely used for diagnostic purposes. Currently, they are also used as highly effective drugs for the individual treatment of patients suffering from such serious diseases as cancer, AIDS, etc.

Cloning

Cloning is one of the methods used in biotechnology to produce identical offspring through asexual reproduction. Otherwise, cloning can be defined as the process of making genetically identical copies of a single cell or organism. That is, the organisms obtained as a result of cloning are similar not only externally, but also genetic information embedded in them is exactly the same.

The term "cloning" comes from English word clone, cloning (twig, shoot, offspring), which refers to a group of plants (for example, fruit trees) obtained from a single producer plant in a vegetative (not seed) way. Later, the name "cloning" was transferred to the developed technology for obtaining identical organisms, also referred to as "substitution cell nucleus". Organisms obtained using this technology became known as clones. In the late 1990s, the possibility of using this technology to obtain genetically identical human individuals became obvious, that is, human cloning became a reality.

In nature, cloning is widespread in various organisms. In plants, natural cloning occurs when various ways vegetative reproduction, in animals - during parthenogenesis and various forms polyembryony (polyembryony: from “poly-” and Greek embrion - “embryo” - the formation in animals of several embryos (twins) from one zygote as a result of its incorrect division due to the influence of random factors). In humans, an example of polyembryony is the birth of identical twins, which are natural clones. Clonal reproduction is widespread among crustaceans and insects.

Dolly the sheep became the first artificially cloned multicellular organism in 1997. In 2007, one of the creators of the cloned sheep, Elizabeth II, awarded a knighthood for this scientific achievement.

The essence of the "nuclear transfer" technique used in cloning is the replacement of the fertilized egg's own cell nucleus with a nucleus extracted from the body's cell, an exact genetic copy of which is planned to be obtained. To date, not only methods have been developed to reproduce the organism from which the cell was taken, but also the one from which the genetic material was taken. There was a potential opportunity to reproduce a dead organism, even in the case when minimal parts remained of it - it is only necessary that genetic material (DNA) can be isolated from them.

Cloning of organisms can be complete or partial. With full cloning, the entire organism is recreated, and with partial cloning, only certain tissues of the body are recreated.

The technology of recreating a whole organism is extremely promising if it is necessary to preserve rare species of animals or to restore extinct species.

Partial cloning - can become the most important direction in medicine, since cloned tissues can compensate for the lack and defects of the human body's own tissues and, most importantly, they are not rejected during transplantation. Such therapeutic cloning does not initially involve obtaining a whole organism. Its development is deliberately stopped at early stages, and the resulting cells, which are called embryonic stem cells (embryonic or germinal stem cells are the most primitive cells that arise in the early stages of embryo development, capable of developing into all cells of an adult organism), are used to produce the necessary tissues or other biological products. It has been experimentally proven that therapeutic cloning can also be successfully used to treat some human diseases that are still considered incurable (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, heart attack, stroke, diabetes, cancer, leukemia, etc.), will avoid the birth of children with the syndrome Down and other genetic diseases. Scientists see an opportunity to successfully use cloning techniques to fight aging and increase life expectancy. The most important application of this technology is the field of reproduction - in infertility, both female and male.

New prospects are also opening up for the application of cloning in agriculture and animal husbandry. By cloning, it is possible to obtain animals with a high productivity of eggs, milk, wool, or such animals that excrete necessary to a person enzymes (insulin, interferon, etc.). By combining genetic engineering techniques with cloning, it is possible to develop transgenic agricultural plants that can defend themselves against pests or be resistant to certain diseases.

Only a few of the possibilities that open up through the use of this latest technology. However, with all its merits and prospects, which are so important for solving many problems of mankind, cloning is one of the most discussed areas of science and medical practice. This is due to the unresolved whole complex of moral, ethical and legal aspects related to manipulations with sex and stem cells, the fate of the embryo and human cloning.

Some ethical and legal aspects of the application of biotechnological methods

Ethics is the doctrine of morality, according to which the main virtue is the ability to find a middle between two extremes. This science was founded by Aristotle.

Bioethics is a part of ethics that studies the moral side of human activity in medicine and biology. The term was proposed by V.R. Potter in 1969
In a narrow sense, bioethics refers to the range of ethical problems in the field of medicine. In a broad sense, bioethics refers to the study of social, environmental, medical and socio-legal problems relating not only to humans, but also to any living organisms included in ecosystems. That is, it has a philosophical orientation, evaluates the results of the development of new technologies and ideas in medicine, biotechnology and biology in general.

Modern biotechnological methods have such a powerful and not fully explored potential that their widespread use is possible only with strict adherence to ethical standards. The moral principles existing in society oblige to seek a compromise between the interests of society and the individual. Moreover, the interests of the individual are currently placed above the interests of society. Therefore, the observance and further development of ethical norms in this area should be directed, first of all, to the full protection of human interests.

Mass introduction in medical practice and commercialization of fundamentally new technologies in the field of genetic engineering and cloning, also led to the need to create an appropriate legal framework that regulates all legal aspects of activities in these areas.

The latest biotechnologies create enormous opportunities for interference in the life of living organisms and inevitably put a person before the moral question: to what extent is it permissible to interfere in natural processes? Any discussion on biotechnological issues is not limited to the scientific side of the matter. During these discussions, diametrically opposed views are often expressed regarding the application and further development specific biotechnological methods, primarily such as:
- Genetic Engineering,
- transplantation of organs and cells for therapeutic purposes;
- cloning - artificial creation of a living organism;
- the use of drugs that affect the physiology of the nervous system to modify behavior, emotional perception of the world, etc.

The practice that exists in modern democratic societies shows that these discussions are absolutely necessary not only for a more complete understanding of all the "pluses" and "minuses" of using methods that invade a person's privacy already at the level of genetics. They also make it possible to discuss moral and ethical aspects and determine the long-term consequences of the use of biotechnologies, which in turn helps legislators create an adequate legal framework that regulates this area of ​​activity in the interests of protecting individual rights.

Let us dwell on those areas in biotechnological research that are directly related to a high risk of violation of individual rights and cause the most heated discussion about their wide application: organ and cell transplantation for therapeutic purposes and cloning.
In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in interest in the study and application in biomedicine of human embryonic stem cells and cloning techniques to obtain them. As you know, embryonic stem cells are able to transform into different types of cells and tissues (hematopoietic, reproductive, muscle, nerve, etc.). They turned out to be promising for use in gene therapy, transplantology, hematology, veterinary medicine, pharmacotoxicology, drug testing, etc.

The isolation of these cells is carried out from human embryos and fetuses 5-8 weeks of development obtained during medical termination of pregnancy (as a result of abortion), which raises numerous questions regarding the ethical and legal legitimacy of conducting research on human embryos, including the following:
- How necessary and justified is scientific research on human embryonic stem cells?
- is it permissible to destroy human life for the sake of the progress of medicine and how moral is this?
- is the legal framework for the use of these technologies sufficiently elaborated?

All these issues would be resolved much easier if there was a universal understanding of what the “beginning of life” is, from what moment one can speak of a “person in need of protection of rights” and what is subject to protection: human germ cells, embryo from the moment of fertilization, fetus from a certain stage of intrauterine development or a person from the moment of his birth? Each of the options has its supporters and opponents, and the question of the status of germ cells and the embryo has not yet found its final solution in any country in the world.

In a number of countries, any research on embryos is prohibited (for example, in Austria, Germany). In France, the rights of the embryo are protected from the moment of conception. In the UK, Canada and Australia, although the creation of embryos for research purposes is not prohibited, a system of legislative acts has been developed to regulate and control such research. In Russia, the situation in this area is more than uncertain: the activities for the study and use of stem cells are not sufficiently regulated, there are significant gaps in the legislation that hinder the development of this area. With regard to cloning, in 2002 a federal law introduced a temporary (for 5 years) ban on human cloning, but its validity period expired in 2007, and the question remains open.

Scientists are trying to clearly distinguish between "reproductive" cloning, the purpose of which is the creation of a clone, that is, a whole living organism identical in genotype to another organism, and "therapeutic" cloning, used to grow a colony of stem cells.

In the case of stem cells, the issues of embryonic status and cloning take on a new dimension. This is due to the motivation of this kind of scientific research, namely, their application to search for new, more effective ways treatment of serious and even incurable diseases. Therefore, in some countries (such as the USA, Canada, England), where until recently it was considered unacceptable to use embryos and cloning technologies for therapeutic purposes, there is a change in the position of society and the state towards the admissibility of their use for the treatment of diseases such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, postmyocardial infarction, insufficient regeneration of bone or cartilage tissue, craniofacial injuries, diabetes, myodystrophy, etc.

At the same time, therapeutic cloning is seen by many as the first step towards reproductive cloning, which is met with extremely negative attitudes around the world and is universally banned.

Human cloning is currently not officially carried out anywhere. The danger in its use for reproductive purposes is seen in the fact that the cloning technique excludes the natural and free fusion of the genetic material of the father and mother, which is perceived as a challenge to human dignity. It is often said about the problems of self-identification of a clone: ​​who should he consider his parents, why is he a genetic copy of someone else? In addition, cloning faces some technical hurdles that endanger the health and well-being of the clone. There are facts testifying to the rapid aging of clones, the occurrence of numerous mutations in them. In accordance with the cloning technique, a clone grows from an adult - not a sex, but a somatic cell, in the genetic structure of which so-called somatic mutations have occurred over the years. If, during natural fertilization, the mutated genes of one parent are compensated by normal analogues of the other parent, then such compensation does not occur during cloning, which significantly increases the risk of diseases caused by somatic mutations and many serious diseases (cancer, arthritis, immunodeficiencies) for the clone. Among other things, some people have a fear of a cloned person, of his possible superiority in physical, moral and spiritual development (Russian psychiatrist V. Yarovoy believes that this fear is of the nature mental disorder(phobias) and even gave it the name “bionalism” in 2008).

Only a few of the many problems that arise in connection with the rapid development of biotechnology and their intrusion into human life have been discussed here. Of course, the progress of science cannot be stopped, and the questions it poses arise faster than society can find answers to them. To cope with this state of affairs is possible only by understanding how important it is to widely discuss in society the ethical and legal problems that appear as biotechnologies develop and are introduced into practice. The existence of colossal ideological differences on these issues gives rise to the perceived need for serious state regulation in this domain.

From “biotechnology” to “bioeconomics”

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that advanced biotechnologies can play a significant role in improving the quality of life and human health, ensuring the economic and social growth of states (especially in developing countries).

With the help of biotechnology, new diagnostics, vaccines and drugs can be obtained. Biotechnology can help increase the productivity of major cereal crops, which is especially important in connection with the growth of the world's population. In many countries where large amounts of biomass are not used or are not fully utilized, biotechnology could offer ways to turn them into valuable products, as well as processing them using biotechnological methods to produce various types of biofuels. In addition, with proper planning and management, biotechnology can be used in small regions as a tool for the industrialization of rural areas to create small industries, which will ensure more active development of vacant territories and will solve the problem of employment.

A feature of the development of biotechnology in the 21st century is not only its rapid growth as an applied science, it is increasingly included in the daily life of a person, and what is even more significant - providing exceptional opportunities for the effective (intensive, not extensive) development of almost all sectors of the economy, becomes a necessary condition for the sustainable development of society, and thus has a transforming effect on the paradigm of the development of society as a whole.

The widespread penetration of biotechnologies into the world economy is reflected in the fact that even new terms have been formed to denote the global nature of this process. Thus, the use of biotechnological methods in industrial production began to be called "white biotechnology", in pharmaceutical production and medicine - "red biotechnology", in agricultural production and animal husbandry - "green biotechnology", and for the artificial cultivation and further processing of aquatic organisms (aquaculture or mariculture) - "blue biotechnology". And the economy that integrates all these innovative areas has been called "bioeconomics". The task of transitioning from a traditional economy to a new type of economy - a bioeconomy based on innovations and widely using the possibilities of biotechnology in various industries, as well as in everyday life, has already been declared a strategic goal in many countries of the world.

View document content
"Lab No. 4"

Lab #4

"Analysis and evaluation of various hypotheses for the origin of life"

Target: familiarity with various hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth.

Working process.

Fill in the table:

Answer the question: What theory do you personally adhere to? Why?

"A variety of theories of the origin of life on Earth".

1. Creationism.

According to this theory, life arose as a result of some supernatural event in the past. It is followed by followers of almost all the most common religious teachings. The traditional Judeo-Christian idea of ​​the creation of the world, set forth in the Book of Genesis, has caused and continues to cause controversy. Although all Christians acknowledge that the Bible is God's commandment to mankind, there is disagreement over the length of the "day" mentioned in Genesis. Some believe that the world and all the organisms inhabiting it were created in 6 days of 24 hours. Other Christians do not treat the Bible as a scientific book and believe that the Book of Genesis presents in a form understandable to people the theological revelation about the creation of all living beings by an almighty Creator. The process of the divine creation of the world is conceived as having taken place only once and therefore inaccessible to observation. This is enough to take the whole concept of divine creation out of the scope of scientific research. Science deals only with those phenomena that can be observed, and therefore it will never be able to either prove or disprove this concept.

2. Theory of a stationary state.

According to this theory, the Earth never came into being, but existed forever; it is always able to maintain life, and if it has changed, then very little; species have always existed. Modern dating methods give increasingly higher estimates of the age of the Earth, leading steady state theorists to believe that the Earth and species have always existed. Each species has two possibilities - either a change in numbers or extinction. Proponents of this theory do not recognize that the presence or absence of certain fossil remains may indicate the time of appearance or extinction of a particular species, and cite as an example a representative of the cross-finned fish - coelacanth. According to paleontological data, the crossopterygians became extinct about 70 million years ago. However, this conclusion had to be revised when living representatives of the crossopterygians were found in the Madagascar region. Proponents of the steady state theory argue that only by studying living species and comparing them with fossil remains, one can conclude about extinction, and even then it may turn out to be wrong. The sudden appearance of a fossil species in a particular stratum is due to an increase in its population or movement to places favorable for the preservation of remains.

3. Theory of panspermia.

This theory does not offer any mechanism to explain the primary origin of life, but puts forward the idea of ​​its extraterrestrial origin. Therefore, it cannot be considered a theory of the origin of life as such; it simply takes the problem somewhere else in the universe. The hypothesis was put forward by J. Liebig and G. Richter in the middle XIX century. According to the panspermia hypothesis, life exists forever and is transported from planet to planet by meteorites. The simplest organisms or their spores (“seeds of life”), getting to a new planet and finding favorable conditions here, multiply, giving rise to evolution from the simplest forms to complex ones. It is possible that life on Earth originated from a single colony of microorganisms abandoned from space. Multiple sightings of UFOs, rock carvings of things that look like rockets and "cosmonauts", as well as reports of alleged encounters with aliens are used to substantiate this theory. When studying the materials of meteorites and comets, many "precursors of life" were found in them - substances such as cyanogens, hydrocyanic acid and organic compounds, which, possibly, played the role of "seeds" that fell on the bare Earth. Supporters of this hypothesis were the Nobel Prize winners F. Crick, L. Orgel. F. Crick relied on two circumstantial evidence:

Universality of the genetic code;

The need for the normal metabolism of all living beings of molybdenum, which is now extremely rare on the planet.

But if life did not originate on Earth, then how did it originate outside of it?

4. Physical hypotheses.

Physical hypotheses are based on the recognition of fundamental differences between living matter and non-living matter. Consider the hypothesis of the origin of life put forward in the 30s of the XX century by V. I. Vernadsky. Views on the essence of life led Vernadsky to the conclusion that it appeared on Earth in the form of a biosphere. The fundamental, fundamental features of living matter require for its occurrence not chemical, but physical processes. It must be a kind of catastrophe, a shock to the very foundations of the universe. In accordance with the hypotheses of the formation of the Moon, widespread in the 30s of the XX century, as a result of the separation from the Earth of the substance that previously filled the Pacific Trench, Vernadsky suggested that this process could cause that spiral, vortex motion of the terrestrial substance, which did not happen again. Vernadsky comprehended the origin of life on the same scale and time intervals as the origin of the Universe itself. In a catastrophe, conditions suddenly change, and living and non-living matter arise from protomatter.

5. Chemical hypotheses.

This group of hypotheses is based on the chemical characteristics of life and links its origin with the history of the Earth. Let's consider some hypotheses of this group.

At the origins of the history of chemical hypotheses were views of E. Haeckel. Haeckel believed that carbon compounds first appeared under the influence of chemical and physical causes. These substances were not solutions, but suspensions of small lumps. Primary lumps were capable of accumulation of various substances and growth, followed by division. Then a nuclear-free cell appeared - the original form for all living beings on Earth.

A certain stage in the development of chemical hypotheses of abiogenesis was concept of A. I. Oparin, put forward by him in 1922-1924. XX century. Oparin's hypothesis is a synthesis of Darwinism with biochemistry. According to Oparin, heredity was the result of selection. In Oparin's hypothesis, what is desired will pass for reality. At first, the features of life are reduced to metabolism, and then its modeling is declared to have solved the riddle of the origin of life.

Hypothesis of J. Burpap suggests that abiogenically occurring small nucleic acid molecules of a few nucleotides could immediately combine with the amino acids they encode. In this hypothesis, the primary living system is seen as biochemical life without organisms, carrying out self-reproduction and metabolism. Organisms, according to J. Bernal, appear a second time, in the course of the isolation of individual sections of such biochemical life with the help of membranes.

As the last chemical hypothesis for the origin of life on our planet, consider hypothesis of G. V. Voitkevich, put forward in 1988. According to this hypothesis, the origin of organic substances is transferred to outer space. In the specific conditions of space, organic substances are synthesized (numerous orpanic substances are found in meteorites - carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, nitrogenous bases, amino acids, fatty acids, etc.). It is possible that nucleotides and even DNA molecules could have been formed in space. However, according to Voitkevich, chemical evolution on most planets of the solar system turned out to be frozen and continued only on Earth, finding suitable conditions there. During the cooling and condensation of the gaseous nebula, the entire set of organic compounds turned out to be on the primary Earth. Under these conditions, living matter appeared and condensed around the abiogenically formed DNA molecules. So, according to Voitkevich's hypothesis, biochemical life initially appeared, and in the course of its evolution separate organisms appeared.

View document content
"Lab No. 6"

Laboratory work number 6.

"Identification of signs of similarity between human embryos and other mammals as evidence of their relationship"

Target: identify signs of similarity between human embryos and other mammals as evidence of their relationship.

Equipment: table "Proof of the relationship of human embryos and other mammals"

Working process.

1. Compare the stages of development of the embryos. Are there similarities? In what way do they appear? Describe them.

2. Compare the stages of development of the embryos. Are there any differences? In what way do they appear? Describe them.

3. Draw conclusions about the signs of similarity between human embryos and other mammals as evidence of their relationship