Comparison of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Common features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes

There are only two types of organisms on Earth: eukaryotes and prokaryotes. They differ greatly in their structure, origin and evolutionary development, which will be discussed in detail below.

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Signs of a prokaryotic cell

Prokaryotes are otherwise called pre-nuclear. A prokaryotic cell does not have other organelles that have a membrane sheath (, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex).

Also characteristic features for them are the following:

1. without a shell and does not form bonds with proteins. Information is transmitted and read continuously.
2. All prokaryotes are haploid organisms.
3. Enzymes are located in a free state (diffusely).
4. They have the ability to sporulate under adverse conditions.
5. The presence of plasmids - small extrachromosomal DNA molecules. Their function is to convey genetic information, increasing resistance to many aggressive factors.
6. The presence of flagella and pili - external protein formations necessary for movement.
7. Gas vacuoles are cavities. Due to them, the body is able to move in the water column.
8. The cell wall in prokaryotes (specifically bacteria) consists of murein.
9. The main methods of obtaining energy in prokaryotes are chemo- and photosynthesis.

These include bacteria and archaea. Examples of prokaryotes: spirochetes, proteobacteria, cyanobacteria, krenarcheotes.

Attention! Despite the fact that prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, they have its equivalent - a nucleoid (a circular DNA molecule devoid of shells), and free DNA in the form of plasmids.

The structure of a prokaryotic cell

bacteria

Representatives of this kingdom are among the most ancient inhabitants of the Earth and have a high survival rate in extreme conditions.

There are gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Their main difference lies in the structure of the cell membrane. Gram-positive have a thicker shell, up to 80% consists of a murein base, as well as polysaccharides and polypeptides. When stained by Gram they give a purple color. Most of these bacteria are pathogens. Gram-negative ones have a thinner wall, which is separated from the membrane by the periplasmic space. However, such a shell has increased strength and is much more resistant to the effects of antibodies.

Bacteria play a very important role in nature:

1. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) help maintain the right level of oxygen in the atmosphere. They form more than half of all O2 on Earth.
2. They contribute to the decomposition of organic remains, thereby taking part in the cycle of all substances, participate in the formation of soil.
3. Nitrogen fixers on the roots of legumes.
4. They purify water from waste, for example, the metallurgical industry.
5. They are part of the microflora of living organisms, helping to absorb nutrients as much as possible.
6. They are used in the food industry for fermentation. This is how cheeses, cottage cheese, alcohol, and dough are obtained.

Attention! Apart from positive value bacteria also play a role. Many of them cause deadly dangerous diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, syphilis, tuberculosis.

bacteria

Archaea

Previously, they were combined with bacteria into a single kingdom of Drobyanok. However, over time, it became clear that archaea have their own individual evolutionary path and are very different from other microorganisms in their biochemical composition and metabolism. Up to 5 types are distinguished, the most studied are Euryarchaeots and Crenarchaeotes. Archaeal features are:

• most of them are chemoautotrophs - they synthesize organic substances from carbon dioxide, sugar, ammonia, metal ions and hydrogen;
• play a key role in the nitrogen and carbon cycle;
• participate in digestion in humans and many ruminants;
• have a more stable and durable membrane shell due to the presence of ether bonds in glycerol-ether lipids. This allows archaea to live in highly alkaline or acidic environments, as well as under conditions of high temperatures;
• the cell wall, unlike bacteria, does not contain peptidoglycan and consists of pseudomurein.

The structure of eukaryotes

Eukaryotes are a kingdom of organisms whose cells contain a nucleus. In addition to archaea and bacteria, all living things on Earth are eukaryotes (for example, plants, protozoa, animals). Cells can vary greatly in their shape, structure, size, and function. Despite this, they are similar in the basics of life, metabolism, growth, development, ability to irritate and variability.

Eukaryotic cells can be hundreds or thousands of times larger than prokaryotic cells. They include the nucleus and cytoplasm with numerous membranous and non-membrane organelles. Membrane include: endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, Golgi complex, mitochondria,. Non-membrane: ribosomes, cell center, microtubules, microfilaments.

The structure of eukaryotes

Let us compare eukaryotic cells from different kingdoms.

The kingdoms of eukaryotes include:

• protozoa. Heterotrophs, some capable of photosynthesis (algae). They reproduce asexually, sexually and in a simple way into two parts. Most do not have a cell wall;
• plants. They are producers, the main way to obtain energy is photosynthesis. Most plants are immobile and reproduce asexually, sexually and vegetatively. The cell wall is made up of cellulose;
• mushrooms. Multicellular. Distinguish between lower and higher. They are heterotrophic organisms and cannot move independently. They reproduce asexually, sexually and vegetatively. They store glycogen and have a strong chitin cell wall;
• animals. There are 10 types: sponges, worms, arthropods, echinoderms, chordates and others. They are heterotrophic organisms. capable of independent movement. The main storage substance is glycogen. The cell wall is made up of chitin, just like in fungi. The main mode of reproduction is sexual.

Table: Comparative characteristics vegetable and animal cell

Structure	plant cell	animal cage
cell wall	Cellulose	Consists of glycocalyx - a thin layer of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
Core location	Located closer to the wall	Located in the central part
Cell Center	Exclusively in lower algae	Present
Vacuoles	Contains cell sap	Contractile and digestive.
Spare substance	Starch	Glycogen
plastids	Three types: chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leucoplasts	Missing
Nutrition	autotrophic	heterotrophic

Comparison of prokaryotes and eukaryotes

The structural features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are significant, but one of the main differences concerns the storage of genetic material and the way energy is obtained.

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes photosynthesize differently. In prokaryotes, this process takes place on membrane outgrowths (chromatophores) stacked in separate piles. Bacteria do not have a fluorine photosystem, therefore they do not release oxygen, unlike blue-green algae, which form it during photolysis. The sources of hydrogen in prokaryotes are hydrogen sulfide, H2, various organic substances and water. The main pigments are bacteriochlorophyll (in bacteria), chlorophyll and phycobilins (in cyanobacteria).

Of all the eukaryotes, only plants are capable of photosynthesis. They have special formations - chloroplasts containing membranes laid in grana or lamellae. The presence of photosystem II allows oxygen to be released into the atmosphere during the process of water photolysis. The only source of hydrogen molecules is water. The main pigment is chlorophyll, and phycobilins are present only in red algae.

Main differences and characteristics prokaryotes and eukaryotes are presented in the table below.

Table: Similarities and differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Comparison	prokaryotes	eukaryotes
Appearance time	Over 3.5 billion years	About 1.2 billion years
Cell sizes	Up to 10 µm	10 to 100 µm
Capsule	There is. Performs protective function. Associated with the cell wall	Is absent
plasma membrane	There is	There is
cell wall	Composed of pectin or murein	There are other than animals
Chromosomes	Instead, circular DNA. Translation and transcription take place in the cytoplasm.	Linear DNA molecules. Translation takes place in the cytoplasm, while transcription takes place in the nucleus.
Ribosomes	Small 70S-type. Located in the cytoplasm.	Large 80S-type, can be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, located in plastids and mitochondria.
membranous organelle	None. There are outgrowths of the membrane - mesosomes	There are: mitochondria, Golgi complex, cell center, EPS
Cytoplasm	There is	There is
	Missing	There is
Vacuoles	Gas (aerosomes)	There is
Chloroplasts	None. Photosynthesis takes place in bacteriochlorophylls	Present only in plants
Plasmids	There is	Missing
Core	Is absent	There is
Microfilaments and microtubules.	Missing	There is
Division methods	Constriction, budding, conjugation	Mitosis, meiosis
Interaction or contacts	Missing	Plasmodesmata, desmosomes or septa
Types of cell nutrition	Photoautotrophic, photoheterotrophic, chemoautotrophic, chemoheterotrophic	Phototrophic (in plants) endocytosis and phagocytosis (in others)

Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Conclusion

Comparison of a prokaryotic and eukaryotic organism is a rather laborious process that requires consideration of many nuances. They have much in common with each other in terms of structure, ongoing processes and properties of all living things. The differences lie in the functions performed, the methods of nutrition and internal organization. Those who are interested in this topic can use this information.

This is the oldest group that appeared about 3.5 billion years ago; besides, these are the smallest organisms possessing cell structure. The properties of prokaryotes are summarized in Table. 2.2. As a rule, prokaryotes are represented by single cells, although blue-green algae (cyanobacteria, Cyanobacteria) can form chains of cells called threads.

Table 2.2. Main Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
sign	prokaryotes	eukaryotes
organisms	bacteria	Protoctists, fungi, plants and animals
Cell sizes	The average diameter is 0.5-10 microns	The diameter is usually 10-100 microns; cell volume is typically 1,000-10,000 times that of prokaryotes
The form	Mostly unicellular	Mostly multicellular (with the exception of Protoctista, many of which are unicellular)
Emergence in the process of evolution	3.5 billion years ago	1.2 billion years ago; descended from prokaryotes
cell division	Basically a simple bisection; spindle does not form	Mitosis, meiosis, or a combination of these methods of division; spindle is formed
genetic material	Circular DNA floats freely in the cytoplasm; DNA is not associated with proteins or RNA; no chromosomes	DNA is linear and located in the nucleus; DNA is linked to RNA and protein; chromosomes are present
Protein synthesis	70S ribosomes (small); There is no endoplasmic reticulum (differences in many other details of protein synthesis, including sensitivity to antibiotics; protein synthesis in prokaryotes, for example, is inhibited by streptomycin)	80S ribosomes (large); Ribosomes can be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
Organelles	There are few organelles; None of them has a shell; Internal membranes are rare; when present, they are associated with the processes of respiration and photosynthesis	There are many organelles; Organelles are surrounded by membranes, eg nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts (double membranes); Many organelles surrounded by a single membrane, e.g. Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, microbodies, endoplasmic reticulum
Cell walls	Rigid, contain polysaccharides and amino acids; the main supporting material is murein	The cell walls of green plants and fungi are rigid and contain polysaccharides; main support material cell wall in plants - cellulose, in fungi - chitin (animal cells do not have a cell wall)
Flagella	Simple, no microtubules; located extracellularly (not surrounded by plasma membrane); Diameter 20 nm	Complex, with the arrangement of microtubules of the "9 + 2" type; surrounded by a plasma membrane; Diameter 200 nm
Breath	In bacteria, it occurs in the mesosomes; in cyanobacteria - on cytoplasmic membranes	Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria
Photosynthesis	There are no chloroplasts; occurs on membranes that do not have specific packaging	In chloroplasts containing membranes that are usually arranged in lamellae or grana
Nitrogen fixation	Some people have this ability.	No organism is capable of nitrogen fixation.

Some bacteria adhere to each other, forming characteristic clusters resembling bunches of grapes (Fig. 2.10), but the combined cells remain completely independent of each other. An individual bacterial cell can only be seen using , which is why they are called microorganisms. Science that studies bacteria bacteriology- constitutes an important branch.

Bacteria vary in size: their length ranges from 0.1 to 10 microns, and their average diameter is 1 micron. Thus, in bacterial cell there is enough space to fit 200 molecules of medium-sized globular proteins (5 nm in diameter) across it. Since such molecules are capable of diffusing at a distance of about 60 microns per second, these organisms do not need any special transport mechanisms.

Bacteria can be found everywhere: in soil and dust, in water and in the air, inside and on the surface and. Some bacteria live in hot springs with temperatures of 78°C or higher. Others are able to survive under very low temperatures and even survive certain periods of freezing in the ice. Bacteria are also found in deep crevices on the ocean floor at very high pressure and temperature 360°C. They start unique food chains in these areas of the ocean.

The number of bacteria is unimaginably large; found that one gram of fertile soil contains 2.5 billion bacteria; in 1 cm 3 of fresh milk, their content can exceed 3 billion. Together with fungi, bacteria are of vital importance for all other organisms, since, destroying organic substances as a result of their vital activity, they ensure the circulation of biogenic elements in nature. In addition, they are becoming increasingly important in human life, not only because some of them are the causative agents of various diseases, but also because, due to the variety of biochemical reactions occurring in them, they can be used in many biotechnological processes. This issue is discussed in more detail in Chap. 12.

Prokaryotes are the oldest organisms that form an independent kingdom. Prokaryotes include bacteria, blue-green "algae" and a number of other small groups.

Prokaryotic cells do not, unlike eukaryotes, have a well-formed cell nucleus and other internal membrane organelles (with the exception of flat cisterns in photosynthetic species, for example, in cyanobacteria). The only large circular (in some species - linear) double-stranded DNA molecule, which contains the main part of the genetic material of the cell (the so-called nucleoid) does not form a complex with histone proteins (the so-called chromatin). Prokaryotes include bacteria, including cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Also, they can be conditionally attributed to permanent intracellular symbionts of eukaryotic cells - mitochondria and plastids.

Eukaryotes (eukaryotes) (from the Greek eu - good, completely and karyon - core) - organisms that, unlike prokaryotes, have a cell nucleus separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope. The genetic material is enclosed in several linear double-stranded DNA molecules (depending on the type of organisms, their number per nucleus can vary from two to several hundred), attached from the inside to the membrane of the cell nucleus and forming in the vast majority (except dinoflagellates) a complex with histone proteins, called chromatin. Eukaryotic cells have a system of internal membranes that form, in addition to the nucleus, a number of other organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc.). In addition, the vast majority have permanent intracellular symbionts-prokaryotes - mitochondria, and algae and plants also have plastids.

2. Eukaryotic cells. Structure and functions

Eukaryotes include plants, animals, fungi.

Animal cells do not have a cell wall. It is represented by a naked protoplast. The boundary layer of an animal cell - the glycocalyx - is the upper layer of the cytoplasmic membrane, "reinforced" by polysaccharide molecules that are part of the intercellular substance.

Mitochondria have folded cristae.

Animal cells have a cell center consisting of two centrioles. This suggests that any animal cell is potentially capable of division.

Inclusion in an animal cell is presented in the form of grains and drops (proteins, fats, carbohydrate glycogen), end products of metabolism, salt crystals, pigments.

In animal cells, there may be contractile, digestive, excretory vacuoles of small sizes.

There are no plastids in the cells, inclusions in the form of starch grains, large vacuoles filled with juice.

3. Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Most important difference eukaryote from prokaryotes long time the presence of a formed nucleus and membrane organelles was considered. However, by the 1970s and 1980s it became clear that this is only a consequence of deeper differences in the organization of the cytoskeleton. For some time it was believed that the cytoskeleton is characteristic only of eukaryotes, but in the mid-1990s. proteins homologous to the major proteins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton have also been found in bacteria. (Table 16).

It is the presence of a specifically arranged cytoskeleton that allows eukaryotes to create a system of mobile internal membrane organelles. In addition, the cytoskeleton allows for endo- and exocytosis (it is assumed that it is due to endocytosis that intracellular symbionts, including mitochondria and plastids, appeared in eukaryotic cells). Another important function of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton is to ensure the division of the nucleus (mitosis and meiosis) and the body (cytotomy) of the eukaryotic cell (the division of prokaryotic cells is organized more simply). Differences in the structure of the cytoskeleton also explain other differences between pro- and eukaryotes. For example, the constancy and simplicity of the forms of prokaryotic cells and the significant diversity of form and the ability to change it in eukaryotic cells, as well as the relatively large size of the latter.

Thus, the size of prokaryotic cells averages 0.5 - 5 microns, the sizes of eukaryotic cells - on average from 10 to 50 microns. In addition, only among eukaryotes come across truly giant cells, such as massive eggs of sharks or ostriches (in a bird's egg, the entire yolk is one huge egg), neurons of large mammals, whose processes, reinforced by a cytoskeleton, can reach tens of centimeters in length.

In their structure, organisms can be unicellular and multicellular. Prokaryotes are predominantly unicellular, with the exception of some cyanobacteria and actinomycetes. Among eukaryotes, protozoa, a number of fungi, and some algae have a unicellular structure. All other forms are multicellular. It is believed that the first living organisms on Earth were single-celled.

A cell is an elementary structural and functional unit of the structure and life of all organisms, which has its own metabolism and is capable of independent existence, self-reproduction. Organisms consisting of one cell are called unicellular. Many protozoa (sarcodes, flagellates, sporozoans, ciliates) and bacteria can be attributed to unicellular organisms. Each cell in its composition has up to 80% water, and only the rest falls on the mass of dry matter.

Features of the structure of cells

All cell forms life, based on the structural features of their constituent cells, can be divided into two types (superkingdoms):
1. Prokaryotes (pre-nuclear) - those that arose earlier in the process of evolution and are simpler in structure. These are unicellular living organisms that do not have a well-formed cell nucleus and other internal membrane organelles. The average cell diameter is 0.5-10 microns. It has one circular DNA molecule located in the cytoplasm. Has simple binary fission. In this case, the fission spindle is not formed;
2. Eukaryotes (nuclear) - which arose later more complex cells. All organisms except bacteria and archaea are nuclear. Each nuclear cell contains a kernel. The average cell diameter is 10-100 microns. Usually has several linear DNA molecules (chromosomes) located in the nucleus. It has the division of meiosis or mitosis. Forms a spindle of division.

In turn, eukaryotes can also be divided into two types (kingdoms):
1. Plant cells;
2. Animal cells.

 

The structural features of an animal cell can be seen in the picture above. The cell can be divided into the following parts:
1. Cell membrane;
2. Cytoplasm or cytazol;
3. Cytoskeleton;
4. Centrioles;
5. Golgi apparatus;
6. Lysosome;
7. Ribosome;
8. Mitochondria;


11. Core;
12. Nucleolus;
13. Peroxisome.

Structural features plant cell can also be seen in the picture above. The cell can be divided into the following parts:
1. Cell membrane;
2. Cytoplasm or cytazol;
3. Cytoskeleton;
4. Pores;
5. Golgi apparatus;
6. Central vacuole;
7. Ribosome;
8. Mitochondria;
9. Rough endoplasmic reticulum;
10. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum;
11. Core;
12. Nucleolus.

Structural features of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

One can write a whole article about the structural features of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, but still we will try to highlight only the important parts and analyze the difference between one superkingdom over another. We begin to describe the difference by moving to the core.

Comparative table of cells
Comparison	Prokaryotic cell (prenuclear)	eukaryotic cell (nuclear)
Cell size	0.5-10 µm	10-100 µm
DNA molecule	One circular molecule found in the cytoplasm	Several linear molecules of DNA located in the nucleus
cell division	simple binary	meiosis or mitosis
cell wall	Is composed of polymeric protein-carbohydrate molecules	Plant cells are made up of cellulose. Animals do not have cells.
cell membrane	There is	There is
Cytoplasm	There is	There is
EPR*	Not	There is
golgi apparatus	Not	There is
Mitochondria	Not	There is
Vacuoles	Not	Most cells have
cytoskeleton	Not	There is
Centriole	Not	Have animal cells
Ribosomes	There is	There is
Lysosomes	Not	There is
Core	Nuclear region with no nuclear membrane	Is surrounded by a membrane

* EPR - Endoplasmic reticulum

Read the information .

Cell - a complex system, consisting of three structural and functional subsystems of the surface apparatus, the cytoplasm with organelles and the nucleus.

prokaryotes(pre-nuclear) - cells that do not, unlike eukaryotes, have a formalized cell nucleus and other internal membrane organelles.

eukaryotes(nuclear) - cells that, unlike prokaryotes, have a formed cell nucleus, limited from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane.

Comparative characteristics of the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Structure	eukaryotic cells	prokaryotic cells
	There are plants, fungi; absent in animals in animals. Composed of cellulose (in plants) or chitin (in fungi)	There is. Composed of polymeric protein-carbohydrate molecules
	Is and is surrounded by a membrane	Nuclear area; no nuclear membrane
		Ring; contains virtually no protein. Transcription and translation take place in the cytoplasm
		Yes, but they are smaller
	Most cells have
	All organisms except higher plants have	Some bacteria have
	found in plant cells	No. Photosynthesis of green and purple occurs in bactriochlorophylls (pigments)
Image	eukaryotic cell	prokaryotic cell

cell wall- a rigid shell of the cell, located outside the cytoplasmic membrane and performing structural, protective and transport functions. Found in most bacteria, archaea, fungi and plants. Animal cells and many protozoa do not have a cell wall.

Plasma(cellular) membrane- superficial, peripheral structure surrounding the protoplasm of plant and animal cells.

Core- an obligatory part of the cell in many unicellular and all multicellular organisms.

The term "nucleus" (lat. Nucleus) was first used by R. Brown in 1833, when he described the spherical structures he observed in plant cells.

Cytoplasm- the extranuclear part of the cell that contains organelles. Limited from environment plasma membrane.

Chromosomes- Structural elements of the cell nucleus containing DNA, which contains the hereditary information of the organism.

Endoplasmic reticulum(EPS) - cellular organoid; a system of tubules, vesicles and "cisterns" delimited by membranes.

Located in the cytoplasm of the cell. Participates in metabolic processes, providing transport of substances from the environment to the cytoplasm and between individual intracellular structures.

Ribosomes- intracellular particles consisting of ribosomal RNA and proteins. Present in the cells of all living organisms.

Golgi complex(Golgi apparatus) - a cell organoid involved in the formation of its metabolic products (various secrets, collagen, glycogen, lipids, etc.), in the synthesis of glycoproteins.

Golgi Camillo(1844 - 1926) - Italian histologist.

Developed (1873) a method for preparing preparations nervous tissue. Installed two types nerve cells. Described the so-called. Golgi apparatus, etc. Nobel Prize(1906, with S. Ramon y Cajal).

Lysosomes- structures in animal cells and plant organisms containing enzymes that can break down (i.e., lyse - hence the name) proteins, polysaccharides, peptides, nucleic acids.

Mitochondria- organelles of animal and plant cells. Redox reactions occur in mitochondria, providing cells with energy. The number of mitochondria in one cell varies from a few to several thousand. Prokaryotes are absent (their function is performed by cell membrane).

Vacuoles- cavities filled with liquid (cell sap) in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.

Cilia- thin filamentous and bristle-like outgrowths of cells capable of moving. characteristic of infusoria, ciliary worms, in vertebrates and humans - for epithelial cells respiratory tract, oviducts, uterus.

Flagella- filamentous mobile cytoplasmic outgrowths of the cell, characteristic of many bacteria, all flagellates, zoospores and spermatozoa of animals and plants. They serve to move in a liquid medium.

Chloroplasts- intracellular organelles of a plant cell in which photosynthesis takes place; painted in green color(they contain chlorophyll).

microtubules- protein intracellular structures that make up the cytoskeleton.

They are hollow cylinders with a diameter of 25 nm.

Microtubules play a role in cells structural components and are involved in many cellular processes, including mitosis, cytokinesis, and vesicular transport.

Microfilaments(MF) - threads consisting of protein molecules and present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.

They have a diameter of about 6-8 nm.

Organelles(organelles) - permanent cellular components that perform certain functions in the life of the cell.

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