Basic concepts of phonetics. Phonetic units of language
The phonetics section studies the sound side of the Russian language. Phonetics, which studies the sound shell of words and sentences, has not only theoretical, but also practical significance. Sounds that represent air vibrations belong to the field of physical phenomena and are studied in acoustics. To convey this or that thought, people must utter a series of sounds that make up the sound shell of certain words. Without such voice reproduction, speech communication cannot take place. Graphics are associated with phonetics, i.e. a system of letter signs adopted to designate individual sounds of the Russian language in writing. Orthography interacts with graphics, determining general principles and private rules for the use of alphabetic characters in written speech.
When studying the sound structure of a language, it is important to establish what phonetic means and under what conditions it has for transmitting and distinguishing significant units of speech. Phoneme- the shortest sound unit, capable of distinguishing the sound shells (sound side) of different words and morphemes ( significant parts words).
The following phonetic means exist:
Sound - articulate element of spoken speech. It is formed with the help of the speech organs. In many cases, words differ not by several, but by just one sound. For example, the word “wash” is distinguished from words that have the same number of sounds, wash - dig - be(difference in nerve sound); wash - mother - dregs(difference in second sound); wash - soap - cape(the difference is in the third sound).
All sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
Vowel sounds: [a], [o], [e], [i], [ыJ, [у].
Yotated vowel sounds: e, е [jo], yuTsu], i [j a].
Consonants
Doubles according to deafness - voicedness:
[b], [i], [g|, [d], [g], [z] - voiced;
[i], [f], [k], [t], [sh], , [ts], [h], [sch] - only deaf;
[йJ, [r], [l], [m], [i] - sonorous (voiced only).
Doubles by hardness - softness:
[b], [c], [d], [d], [h], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], [r], [s], [t ], [f], [x] - solid;
, [v'], [g'], [d'], [z'], [k'], [l'], K], [n'], [p'], Ip ], 1s'] , [t'], [f], [x'] soft;
[zh], [w], [ts] - only hard ones;
[h], [j], Iш] - only soft ones.
Syllable - it is a phonetic unit, a unit of sounding speech. In the Russian language, the vowel sound is the syllable-forming sound as it is the most sonorous. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowel sounds. Syllables can be open or closed. Syllables ending with a vowel sound are called open syllables. Syllables with a consonant sound at the end are called closed. Words can consist of one, two, three or more syllables. The syllable on which the stress falls is called a stressed syllable, the remaining syllables are unstressed. The syllable division (syllable boundary) passes between the vowels of the previous and consonants of the following syllable: kvar-ti-ra, ras-pi-sa-ni-e. When combining two sonorants (except for “th”) or two noisy consonants, the syllable division is the same: com-pa-ta,
peasant.
If a word contains a sonorant consonant followed by a noisy consonant, then the syllable boundary will pass between them: half a minute, half a minute.
When the sound [йJ] is combined with a sonorant syllable, the syllable division passes between them: secret, wow.
The syllable division and rules for transferring a word from one line to another may not coincide: dividing words into syllables should not be confused with dividing words for transfer. The rules of transfer are based on several principles, and transfer of words to syllables is only one of the principles.
SUBJECT OF PHONETICS.
BASIC PHONETIC UNITS
PHONETICS- a branch of the science of language that studies the sound side of language. Phonetics is a specific system included in common system language. This is a sublevel of general language system, inextricably linked with the entire system, since the basic units of language are words, morphemes, phrases, sentences that represent more high levels, - are signs. Indeed, in addition to the semantic side - designated (values), they all have a material side that is accessible to the senses - denoting(sounds and their combinations). There is a conditional (not natural, not natural) connection between the signified and the signifier. Yes, word dream has a material expression - it is a combination of five sounds that serves to express meaning “something created by the imagination, mentally imagined.” The subject of phonetics is the material (sound) side of language.
Phonetics task – study of methods of formation (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech stream. You can study phonetics for different purposes and different methods. Depending on this, general phonetics, descriptive phonetics, comparative phonetics, historical phonetics, and experimental phonetics are distinguished.
General phonetics based on the material of various languages, examines theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, syllable structure, relationship sound system language to its grammatical system.
Descriptive phonetics explores the sound structure of a particular language in synchronous plan, i.e. at the present stage of language development.
Comparative phonetics explains phenomena in the field of sound structure, referring to the material of related languages.
Historical phonetics traces the formation of phonetic phenomena over more or less long period time, studies changes in the phonetic system that occurred at a certain stage of their development, i.e. studies phonetics in diachronic plan.
Experimental phonetics is part of general phonetics, studies the sound side of the language using instrumental methods.
Thus, phonetics of modern Russian language– this is descriptive phonetics, since phonetic phenomena are considered at a certain stage of language development, at a given point in time.
All phonetic units language - phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables, sounds - are interconnected by quantitative relationships.
Phrase – the largest phonetic unit, a complete utterance in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause. A phrase does not always coincide with a sentence (a sentence can consist of several phrases, and a phrase can consist of several sentences). But even if the phrase coincides with the sentence, then the same phenomenon is still considered with different points vision. In phonetics, attention is paid to intonation, pauses, etc.
Intonation – a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects, which are manifested in successive changes in pitch, speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and deceleration in the flow of speech), sound strength (intensity of speech), intraphrase pauses, general timbre of the utterance. With the help of intonation, speech is divided into syntagms.
Syntagma – combining two or more phonetic words from a phrase. For example: See you tomorrow I In the evening. See you I tomorrow night. In these sentences, syntagms are separated by a pause. It should be noted that the term “syntagma” is understood differently by scientists. Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in particular, distinguishes syntagma from speech tact as an intonationally formed semantic-syntactic unit of speech, isolated from the composition of the sentence
Speech tact – part of a phrase, united by one stress, limited by pauses and characterized by incompleteness intonation (with the exception of the last one). For example: In the hour of trial / let us bow to our fatherland / in Russian / at our feet. (D. Kedrin).
Phonetic word - part of a speech beat (if the phrase is divided into beats) or a phrase united by one stress. A phonetic word can coincide with a word in the lexical and grammatical understanding of this term. A phrase has as many phonetic words as there are stresses in it, i.e. Most often, significant words are highlighted in separate measures. Since some words are not stressed, there are often fewer phonetic words than lexical ones. As a rule, auxiliary parts of speech are unstressed, but significant words can also be unstressed:
. Words that do not have stress and are adjacent to other words are called clitics . Depending on the place they occupy in relation to the word with stress, proclitics and enclitics are distinguished. Proclitics They call unstressed words that come in front of the stressed word to which they are adjacent: , enclitics - unstressed words that come after the stressed word to which they are adjacent:, . Proclitics and enclitics are usually function words, but an enclitic can also be a significant word when a preposition or particle takes on the stress: By ´ water[by the way].Syllable - part of a beat or phonetic word, consisting of one or more sounds, a connection of the least sonorous sound with the most sonorous, which is syllabic (see section “Syllable division. Types of syllables”).
Sound - the smallest unit of speech produced in one articulation. We can also define sound as the smallest phonetic unit distinguished during the sequential division of speech.
The basic units of the sound structure of a language include: sound, syllable, phonetic word, speech tact, phrase, stress, intonation.
Sound- this is the smallest unit of sounding speech, the limit of acoustic division of speech. Sounds are produced through the work of the human articulatory apparatus and are perceived by the ear. Each language is characterized by a special phonetic system, despite the fact that the speech apparatus of a native speaker of any language is capable of producing any sound and that the sound structure of existing languages is based on the same sounds.
Syllable is formed by a combination of several sounds. A syllabic sound is a sound that is more sonorous than others within a syllable. Syllabic vowels are vowels as sounds of greatest sonority, non-syllabic are consonants as sounds of lesser sonority, which are organized in a syllable around vowels. A syllable is open if it ends in a vowel, and closed if it ends in a consonant. Syllable- this is part of a phonetic word, pronounced with one exhalation push of air and characterized by increased sonority.
Phonetic word is a collection of syllables united by one stress.
Not all syllables in a word are pronounced the same. Emphasizing a syllable in a word is called accent. The stress in a word is called verbal. Stress on the word in different languages characterized on the following grounds: power(strength or intensity of articulation), quantitative(time or length of pronunciation), musical(movement of tone, its increase or decrease). Syllable prominence is determined by a combination of these characteristics. The stress in different languages can be fixed(fall only on a certain syllable in a word: French and Latin languages - on the last syllable) or unfixed(English, Russian), and also mobile(Russian language – tooth – tooth, forest – forests) or motionless(French, Latin, English and other languages). In Russian there is no accent: prepositions(on, under, etc.), function words(intern., particles, unions, etc.) and some. etc. Therefore, the concept of a stressed word is related to the concepts "proclitics" And "enclitics". Proclitic– an unstressed word adjacent to the beginning of the subsequent fully significant word that bears stress: in the table [f-stal’ uh], on earth [n'-z'iml' uh]. An enclitic is an unstressed word adjacent to the end of the previous full-valued word: lie on your back [l'ech' ná-sp'inu].
Speech tact- this is a set of phonetic words, limited by pauses and characterized by the intonation of incompleteness. Pauses between speech beats are shorter than between phrases.
Phrase- the largest phonetic unit of sounding speech. Phrase- this is a set of speech beats, this is a complete utterance in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other, similar units by a pause. The phrase does not always coincide with the sentence. The phrase is analyzed from the point of view. its intonation, the number and location of pauses in the middle of this phrase, the number of speech beats, etc. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats leads to distortion of the conveyed thought or its complete destruction. The pauses between phrases are longer than between speech beats.
Each phrase is framed intonationally. Intonation is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects. Intonation is manifested in melody - successive changes in pitch (increase/decrease), rhythm of speech (strong/weak, long/short syllables), rate of speech (acceleration/slowdown in the flow of speech), intra-phrase pauses and the general timbre of the utterance (“gloomy”, “ cheerful”, etc.). With the help of intonation, not only the design of a phrase occurs, but also the expression of people’s feelings and thoughts. Intonation also helps to divide the text into intonational and semantic segments - syntagms. Timbre means of intonation are different qualities of the voice, determined mainly by the state vocal cords. The voice can be neutral, relaxed, tense, etc. Quantitative and dynamic characteristics of intonation include increasing or decreasing the volume and changing the tempo of pronouncing individual sections of the phrase.
End of work -
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Goals of mastering the discipline
The goals of mastering the discipline “Introduction to Linguistics” are the formation of knowledge in the field of linguistics, the development of personal qualities in students, as well as the formation of general cultural, universal (
The place of the discipline in the structure of undergraduate education
The discipline “Introduction to Linguistics” (B3.B.5.) belongs to the basic part of the professional cycle of disciplines.
To master the discipline “Introduction to Linguistics”
Student competencies formed as a result of mastering the discipline
The graduate must have the following general cultural competencies (GC): · has a culture of thinking, is capable of generalization, analysis, perception of information, setting goals
Educational and thematic plan
p/p Topics Lectures Seminars Self. work 1. Linguistics as a science. "Introduction to Language"
À Standard time for studying the module: lectures – 12 hours, practical classes – 14 hours, independent work of the student – 14 hours ¤ Objectives
Language as a social phenomenon
Language is the chronicler of the life of a people. Raising the question of the essence of language in the history of linguistics. Functions of the language. Two-way (dialectical) connection between language and society. Sociolinguistics as a branch of linguistics
Tutorials: a) Basic literature: Barannikova L.I. Introduction to linguistics. Saratov, 1973. Budagov R.I. Introduction to the science of language.
Object, subject and goals of linguistics as a science
The science of language is called linguistics, linguistics, or linguistics. The first term is the most commonly used, the latter is international. The word linguistics
Main problems and tasks of general linguistics
General linguistics has its own special problems, different from the specific ones. The tasks of general linguistics include the following: Definition of an object
Methods of linguistics
“Method (from the Greek methodos - “path of research”) in linguistics: a) generalized sets of theoretical attitudes, techniques, methods of language research,
The place of linguistics in the system of sciences and its connection with other sciences
As is known, modern science consists of three main sections: natural sciences (or natural sciences that study the phenomena and laws of development and existence of nature), social
Concept and types of language dynamics. Extra- and intralinguistic (internal) conditions of language development
The main condition for the existence of a language is its continuous change (spontaneous and conscious). This change is a complex and multidimensional process and is associated with the concept of dynamics
Theories of the origin of language
The question of when and how language arose has interested people since ancient times. Language arose before the birth of science about it, therefore science draws its idea of the time and essence of this phenomenon from indirect and
The hypothetical nature of the initial sound speech
When considering the question of the stages of development of a human being, a number of questions arise regarding the problem of the origin of language as a mechanism of human communication: 1) about the arsenal of sound
Language is the chronicler of the life of the people
2. Raising the question of the essence of language in the history of linguistics.
3. Functions of the language.
4. Two-way (dialectical) connection between language and society. 5. Sociolinguistics as a branch of language There are two main views on language: 1) Language is a natural phenomenon, it is about
Language functions
Exist various classifications language functions. The most common classification classifies the following linguistic facts as the main functions: Communicative (contact
Two-way (dialectical) connection between language and society
The essence of language was correctly defined only in line with the theory of dialectical materialism, which asserts that language has a social nature, arises and develops in society exclusively
2. Stylistic differentiation of language.
3. The concept of norm. Literary norm.
4. The problem of codification of language norms. 5. Auxiliary languages: Koine, pidgins, creoles, Stylistic differentiation of language
"Style is always characterized by the principle of selection and combination of cash
linguistic means
...; differences in styles are determined by differences in these principles."
The concept of norm. Literary norm
A linguistic norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication. "Nor
The problem of codification of language norms
Norms develop spontaneously, in the practice of social life. In a literary language, at a certain level of development of society, these norms can be consciously regulated, otherwise, codified
Language of fiction
LITERATURE: 1.Vinogradov V.V. About the language of fiction. M., 1959. 2. Vinogradov V.V. On the theory of artistic speech. M., 1971. 3. Stepanov Yu.S. Yaz
Internal linguistics
À Standard time for studying the module: lectures – 12 hours, practical classes – 16 hours, independent student work – 13 hours ¤ Modal goals
Sign concept
A sign in a broad sense is any material carrier of social information. A sign is a substitute. Prof. P.V. Chesnokov gives the following definition of the sign
Linguistic sign as a linguistic category
Language consists of units that are signs for transmitting extra-linguistic information. A linguistic sign is something (spoken or written) that
Language structure
In Language, each speech work is divided into smaller significant parts that have separateness, variability and the ability to be used endlessly in the same or other combinations for
Phonetics studies the sound side of language, which is the external expression of our thought, its form and matter, and how the material form must be studied independently, separately from the other side of the self.
The concept of phoneme
“Phoneme (from the Greek phonema - sound, voice) is a unit of the sound structure of a language, serving to identify and distinguish significant units of language - morphemes, of which it is included as
The concept of phonetic laws
Phonetic laws (sound laws) are the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, governing both the stable preservation and regular changes of its sound
Basic phonetic processes
The main phonetic processes of language are the following.
Assimilation is the process of assimilating consonant sounds of the same value. The phenomenon of assimilation is
Other phonetic processes
Epenthesis is the insertion of sound in certain combinations: zemya (Bulgarian) - earth, disposition - ndrav.
Prosthesis - adding a sound at the beginning of a word: osm (Old Russian) - vos
The grammatical structure of the language
Plan. I. History of the issue.
II. The concept of the grammatical structure of language as an object and subject of the study of grammar.
III. Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word. Difference
Background
Grammar as a science studies the grammatical structure of a language. This science has long traditions. The origins of modern European grammatical thought and, accordingly, terminology should be sought in the works
The concept of the grammatical structure of language as an object and subject of the study of grammar
Grammar (Greek grammatike - the art of writing letters, from gramma - letter, writing) - 1) the structure of language, i.e. system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and con
Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word. The difference between them
“A word combines its sound matter and its meaning – lexical and grammatical. The grammatical meaning of a word includes: its meaning as a part of speech, i.e. as a unit belonging to the The concept of the grammatical form of a word Closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning is the concept of grammatical form. The concept of form can be defined from a philosophical and linguistic point of view. From a philosophical point of view
The concept of grammatical category
“In accordance with the main characteristics of the grammatical structure of a language - its formal organization and its functioning - in Russian science with the greatest certainty, starting with the works of L.V. Shche
Languages living and dead
“A language exists only insofar as it is used, spoken in it, perceived in it, written in it and read.” (Sapir. E. Language // Selected works on linguistics and cultural studies. M
Constructed languages
Work on creating artificial languages began in ancient times. The first projects of this kind that have come down to us appeared no later than the 4th-3rd centuries. BC, and in the 17th century. R. Descartes, then G.V. Leibniz
Independent work of students
The goal of the seminars is to develop students’ skills in independent work with linguistic sources different types, teach them to use the entire range of sources
Abstract topics
1. Problems of language and speech in modern research.
Language is the chronicler of the life of the people
2. Identity and difference in language and speech.
3. The word in language and speech.
4. Functioning of the language system in speech.
II. Raising the question of the essence of language in the history of linguistics.
III. Functions of the language.
IV. Two-way (dialectical) connection between language and society.
V. Sociolinguistics as a section
Territorial and social differentiation of language. The concept of popular and national language. Literary language
II. Stylistic differentiation of language.
III. The concept of norm. Literary norm.
IV. Auxiliary languages: Koine, pidgins, creoles, lingua franca.
LITERATURE:
Letter
Plan. 1. General concept of writing and the prerequisites for writing.
1. Page of the Department of Russian Language and Language Theory on the PI SFU website: http://pi.sfedu.ru/pageloader.php?pagename=structure/university_departments/chairs/russian_language 2. Incampus: http://w
Philological portals
1. Donetsk linguistic portal http://mova.dn.ua/index.php 2. Ukrainian philological portal http://litopys.org.ua/ 3. Philological search engine http://philology.flexum.ru
Websites of philological faculties and departments
1. State Institute Russian language named after A.S. Pushkin http://pushkin.edu.ru 2. Institute of Linguistic Research RAS http://iling.spb.ru/ 3. Institute of Russian Language
Philological communities
1. Association of Linguistic Experts of the South of Russia http://ling-expert.ru 2. International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) http://www.mapryal.org 3. Association
Libraries
1. “From the archives of the Russian revolution”: http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/revolt/revolt.htm 2. Philosophy in Russia: http://www.philosophy.ru/ 3. Toronto Slavic Quarterly, ed. Zakhar
Dictionaries
1. Vishnyakova O. V.. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language http://www.classes.ru/grammar/122.Vishnyakova/ 2. Interactive dictionaries of the Russian language on the IRYa website. V.V. Vinogradova: www.slovari.r
Linguistics sites
1. Archive of St. Petersburg Russian Studies www.ruthenia.ru/apr/index.htm 2. Tower of Babel. Database on comparative linguistics. http://starling.rinet.ru/index2ru.htm 3. Geneal
Magazines
1. “Kazan Linguistic School”: the works of the school are presented, information about its history, scientific life and priorities: http://www.kls.ksu.ru 2. HumLang (Human Language), ed. A.A. Polikarpov:
Foreign electronic publications
1. Alsic: Apprentissage des Langues et Systemes d"Information et de Communication. The journal provides an opportunity to exchange the latest theoretical and practical developments in the following areas
Glossary
Adstrate – (Latin – layer, layer) a type of contact of languages, in which the alien language influences the language of the aborigines and is preserved as a neighbor to it.
Accentol
Phonetics subject
Phonetics task The subject of phonetics is the sound means of language: sounds, stress, intonation. - study and description of the sound system of the language in at this stage
its development.
Basic phonetic units and means All phonetics units are divided into And segmental.
· supersegmental Segmental units
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). o- a segment of speech that represents an intonation-semantic unity, highlighted on both sides by pauses.
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). Phonetic word (rhythmic structure)- part of a phrase united by one verbal stress.
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). Syllable- the smallest unit of a speech chain.
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). Sound- minimal phonetic unit.
· Supersegmental units(intonation means) - units that are superimposed on segmental ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration).
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). Accent- highlighting in speech a certain unit in a series of homogeneous units using the intensity (energy) of sound.
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). Tone- rhythmic and melodic pattern of speech, determined by a change in the frequency of the sound signal.
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). Pace- speed of speech, which is determined by the number of segmental units spoken per unit of time.
- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms). Duration- sounding time of a speech segment.
The sound side of speech is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The sound of speech is formed directly in the human speech apparatus, which consists of five main parts:
· Breathe-helping machine,
· larynx,
· supernasal tube, which includes the oral and nasal cavity,
organs of pronunciation
· brain - nervous system.
The breathing apparatus is rib cage, thoraco-abdominal cavity, lungs and windpipe. Each of the components of the breathing apparatus performs its inherent functions.
The larynx is a tube of cartilage connected to each other by short elastic muscular ligaments. The vocal cords are attached to the cartilages that form the larynx and, due to their mobility, change the degree of tension.
The organs of pronunciation are located in the oral cavity, i.e. organs whose work ensures the final high-quality finishing of each speech sound. These organs are usually divided into active ones (lips, tongue, vocal cords, lower jaw) and passive (teeth, uvula, palate, upper jaw).
Vowel sounds can be in strong and weak positions.
· A strong position is a position under stress, in which the sound is pronounced clearly, for a long time, with greater force and does not require verification, for example: city, earth, greatness.
· In a weak position (without stress), the sound is pronounced indistinctly, briefly, with less force and requires verification, for example: head, forest, teacher.
All six vowel sounds are distinguished under stress.
In an unstressed position, instead of [a], [o], [z], other vowel sounds are pronounced in the same part of the word. So, instead of [o], a slightly weakened sound [a] - [wad]a is pronounced, instead of [e] and [a] in unstressed syllables, [ie] is pronounced - a sound intermediate between [i] and [e], for example: [ m"iesta], [h"iesy], [p"iet"brka], [s*ielo].
The alternation of strong and weak positions of vowel sounds in the same part of a word is called positional alternation of sounds.
The pronunciation of vowel sounds depends on which syllable they are in in relation to the stressed one.
· In the first pre-stressed syllable, vowel sounds change less, for example: st[o]l - st[a]la.
· In the remaining unstressed syllables, the vowels change more, and some do not differ at all and in pronunciation approach zero sound, for example^: transported - [p''riev'6s], gardener - [s'davot], water carrier - [v'adavbs] (here ъ к ь indicate an unclear sound, zero sound).
The alternation of vowel sounds in strong and weak positions is not reflected in writing, for example: to be surprised is a miracle; in the unstressed position, the letter is written that denotes the stressed sound in this root: to be surprised means “to meet with a marvel (miracle).”
This is the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, providing for uniform spelling of significant parts of a word - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of position.
The designation of unstressed vowels, verified by stress, is subject to the morphological principle.
1. Basic classification of world languages
Currently, there are from 3 to 5 thousand languages on earth. The difference is associated with the difference in dialects and languages, secondly with the definition of the area and scope of use, and thirdly with the assessment of the “vitality” of the language.
The multiplicity of languages necessitates classification. In modern linguistics, 4 classifications have been developed:
1) Areal (geographical)
2) Functional
3) Typological (morphological)
4) Genealogical
The first is based on studying the linguistic map of the world. Describes the boundaries of distribution.
The second is based on the study of the functions and areas of language use (cultural, diplomatic, language of education, etc.)
The most important are the typological and genealogical classifications.
I. The Indo-European family of languages is the largest. 1 billion 600 million carriers.
II. Altai family. 76 million speakers.
III. Uralic languages.
IV. Caucasian family. (Georgian, Abkhazian, Chechen, Kabardian)
V. Chinese-Tibetan family
VI. Afroasiatic family (Semitohamite family)
Speech sounds are studied in a branch of linguistics called phonetics.
All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.
There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language.
The consonant sounds of the Russian language are those sounds during the formation of which the air encounters some kind of obstacle in the oral cavity; they consist of voice and noise or only noise.
In the first case, voiced consonants are formed, in the second - voiceless consonants.
Most often, voiced and voiceless consonants form pairs based on voicedness-voicelessness: [b] - [p], [v] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [zh] - [ w], [h] - [s].
However, some consonants are only voiceless: [x], [ts], [ch"], [sh] or only voiced: [l], [m], [n], [r], [G].
There are also hard and soft consonants. Most of them form pairs: [b] - [b"], [c] - [c"], [d] - [g"], [d] - [d"], [z] - [z"] , [k] - [k"], [l] - [l"], [m] - [m*], [n] - [n*], [p] - [p"], [r] - [p"], [s] - [s"], [t] - [t"], [f] - [f"], [x] - [x"].
Hard consonants [zh], [sh], [ts] and soft consonants [h"], [t"] do not have paired sounds.
In a word, consonant sounds can occupy different positions, that is, the location of the sound among other sounds in the word.
· A position in which the sound does not change is strong. For a consonant sound, this is the position before the vowel (weak), sonorant (true), before [v] and [v*] (twist). All other positions are weak for consonants.
At the same time, the consonant sound changes: the voiced sound in front of the deaf becomes voiceless: hem - [patshyt"]; the deaf before the voiced becomes voiced: request - [prbz"ba]; the voiced one is deafened at the end of the word: oak - [dup]; no sound is pronounced: holiday - [praz"n"ik]; hard before soft can become soft: power - [vlas"t"].
The Indo-European family of languages is the largest. 1 billion 600 million carriers.
1) Indo-Iranian branch.
a) Indian group (Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi)
b) Iranian group (Persian, Pashto, Forsi, Ossetian)
2) Romano-Germanic branch. The specialties of this branch are Greek and Arabic.
a) Romanesque (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Provençal, Romanian)
b) German group
North Germanic subgroup (Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic)
West German subgroup (German, English, Dutch)
c) Celtic group (Irish, Scottish, Welsh).
3) Balto-Slavic branch of languages
a) Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian)
b) Slavic group
West Slavic subgroup (Polish, Chechen, Slovak)
Southern subgroup (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian)
East Slavic subgroup (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian).
Place of the Russian language in the genealogical classification: Russian language belongs to Indo-European family languages, Balto-Slavic branch, East Slavic subgroup.
Speech sound- a sound formed by the human pronunciation apparatus for the purpose of linguistic communication (the pronunciation apparatus includes: pharynx, oral cavity with tongue, lungs, nasal cavity, lips, teeth).
Related information.
Basic concepts of phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound forms of a language, their acoustic and articulation, properties, laws by which they are formed, and how they function.
The sound of speech is the minimum unit of the vocal chain that arises as a result of human articulation and is characterized by certain phonetic properties.
Sound is the basic unit of language with words and sentences, but in itself it has no meaning.
Sounds play an important meaning and a significant role in language: they create the outer shell of words and thereby help to distinguish words from each other.
Words differ in the number of sounds they consist of, the set of sounds, and the sequence of sounds.
The sounds of the tongue are formed in the speech apparatus when air is exhaled. The following parts can be distinguished in the speech apparatus:
1) a breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea), which creates the air jet pressure necessary for the formation of sound vibrations;
3) the oral cavity and nose, where, under the influence of vibrations of the vocal cords, vibrations of the air mass occur and additional tones and overtones are created, layering on the main tone that arose in the larynx.
4) The oral and nasal cavities are resonators that enhance additional sound tones; organs of pronunciation, i.e. tongue, lips.
5) 5) the human brain and nervous system, which control all work speech apparatus.
Articulatory, all speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. The main differences between them are related to the way these sounds are formed and their role in the formation of a syllable. The syllable-forming vowels are the vowels that form the top of the syllable, therefore in almost all languages of the world the number of consonants exceeds the number of vowels.
Principles of classification of speech sounds
The sounds of the Russian language, according to their formation and acoustic properties, are divided into vowels and consonants.
Vowels are sounds that consist only of the voice; when forming vowels, the participation of the vocal cords and the absence of an obstacle in the oral cavity are required. The exhaled air passes through the mouth without encountering any obstacles. The phonetic function of vowels is to organize the sound integrity of a syllable or word.
There are six main vowel sounds in the Russian language: [a], [o], [u], [e], [i], [s].
Vowel sounds can be stressed (for example, noise - [u], forest - [e]) and unstressed (for example: water - [a], spring - [i]).
Consonants are sounds that consist of noise or voice and noise: when articulating consonants, exhaled air encounters obstacles in the oral cavity on its way. In the formation of consonants, the participation of the vocal cords is not necessary, but the presence of an obstruction and occlusive articulation is required.
Consonants, as a class of sounds, are opposed to vowels also because they are not syllabic-forming: the very name “consonant,” i.e., occurring together with a vowel, indicates the subordinate role of the consonant in the syllable.
Finally, one more thing should be noted important sign in contrast between vowels and consonants - their role as carriers certain information. Since there are significantly fewer vowels than consonants and they are more common, choosing them is quite simple. There are significantly more consonants than vowels, so it is more difficult to choose the one you need.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are paired and unpaired.
In accordance with this feature, all consonants are divided into noisy and sonorant (from the Latin Zopogiz - sonorous).
A voiced consonant at the end of a word and before a voiceless consonant is replaced by its paired voiceless one. This replacement is called stunning (friend - [k], spoon - [w]).
A voiceless consonant before a voiced consonant (except for l, r, Nu m, th) is replaced by its paired voiced consonant. This replacement is called voicing (request - [z"]).
Syllable. Accent
A syllable is one vowel sound or several sounds in a word, which are pronounced with one impulse of air during the speaking process. A syllable is the smallest unit of pronunciation of a word. Syllables consisting of two or more sounds can end either in a vowel (this is an open syllable, for example, po-ra, go-ra,) or in a consonant (this is a closed syllable, for example, doctor-tor, black).
Stress is the emphasis on a syllable in a word with greater force when pronouncing the word using phonetic means(voice strength, length of sound, pitch).
The stress always falls on the vowel sound in a syllable, for example: book-ga, ve-sen-niy, pr-gla-sit.
Depending on the location of the stress in the syllable structure of a word, free and bound stress are distinguished. Free stress is an unfixed stress that can fall on any syllable of a word (in Russian, for example, it can be on the last syllable: good, on the penultimate syllable: girlfriend, on the third from the end: dear.
Bound stress is a fixed stress tied to a specific syllable in a word (in French it is on the last syllable, in English on the first).
In relation to the morphological structure of a word, stress can be mobile or fixed.
Subvocal stress is a stress that can move in different word forms of the same word; it is not tied to the same morpheme, for example: mountain - mountain.
Fixed stress is a constant stress tied to the same morpheme of different word forms of a word, for example: book, book, book.
Stress can distinguish the meanings of words or different forms of a word: atlas (collection geographical maps) - satin (shiny silk fabric), windows (singular plural) - window (generic singular)
The word usually has one stress, but sometimes (usually in complex words) a side stress occurs (for example: medical institute, two-story).
To indicate emphasis on a letter in necessary cases the sign a is used above the stressed vowel.
In some words of the Russian language, the stress is placed on one or another syllable. Both options are correct, for example: simultaneously and at the same time, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, otherwise - otherwise, thinking and thinking.
Russian stress in modified words, when added or conjugated, can remain on the same part of the word on which it was in the initial form: mountain - mountains, large - large, sandy - sandy, choose - choose, or can move to another part of the word, for example: friend - friend, borrow - borrowed.
Phoneme as a unit of language
Every language has a huge variety of sounds. But the whole variety of speech sounds can be reduced to a small number of language units (phonemes) involved in the semantic differentiation of words or their forms.
A phoneme is a unit of the sound structure of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish significant units of language.
There are 5 vowel phonemes in the Russian language, and the number of consonant phonemes ranges from 32 to 37.
Like any unit of language, a phoneme has its own phonological characteristics. Some of them are “passive” signs, others are “active”, for example: hardness, sonority, explosiveness. To determine a phoneme, you need to know a set of its differential features.
To determine a phoneme, you need to find the position in the word in which the most phonemes differ (compare: small - mol - mu - here under stress in the same phonetic environment the phonemes [a], [o], [y] differ) .
Position is a condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, and the structure of the word as a whole. There are strong and weak positions.
A strong position is a position in which the largest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to best perform its functions. For Russian vowels, this is the stressed position. For voiceless/voiced consonants - position before all vowels, for example: [g]ol - [k]ol.
A weak position is a position in which fewer units differ than in a strong position, because phonemes have limited opportunities to fulfill its distinctive function, for example: s[a]ma - itself and soma.
For Russian vowels, the weak position is the position without stress. For deaf/voiced consonants - the position of the end of the word, where they do not differ, coinciding in one sound, for example: forests - fox [lisa], congress - eat [siest].
Transcription
Transcription is a special writing system used to accurately convey the sound composition of spoken or written speech. Transcription is based on strict adherence to the principle of correspondence between a sign and the sound conveyed by this sign: the same sign must in all cases correspond to the same sound.
There are several types of transcriptions. Phonetic transcription is most often used.
Phonetic transcription is used to convey a word in full accordance with its sound, i.e., with its help, the sound composition of the word is recorded. It is built on the basis of any alphabet using superscript or subscript characters that serve to indicate emphasis, softness, length, and brevity. Among the phonetic alphabets, the most famous is the alphabet of the International Phonetic Association, built on the basis Latin alphabet, for example, the words window and day are rendered as follows: [akpo\ [th y ep y].
In Russia, in addition, a transcription is used that is based on Russian graphics: [ltsno], [d*en"].
The transcription does not use punctuation marks or capital letters.
Intonation and its elements
Intonation is a set of rhythmic and melodic components of speech, one of essential means formulation of the statement, identifying it
sense. With the help of intonation, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments with further detailing of their semantic relationships. Intonation includes:
1) melody of speech: the main component of intonation, it is carried out by raising and lowering the voice in a phrase;
2) rhythm of speech, i.e. regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves as the basis for the aesthetic organization of an artistic text - poetic and prosaic;
3) the intensity of speech, i.e. the degree of its volume, the strength or weakness of the utterance;
4) tempo of speech, i.e. the speed of its flow, the duration of sound in time;
5) timbre of speech, i.e. the sound coloring of speech, conveying its emotionally expressive shades.
Intonation forms a statement into a single whole, distinguishes between types of statements in terms of their purposefulness, expresses emotional overtones, and characterizes the speaker and the communication situation as a whole.
Read, indicate what role stress plays in words. Put emphasis, make 5-7 sentences.
Flock of squirrels - vegetable protein; the organ of speech - the organ sounds, the majestic castle - the door lock; smells like perfume - smells like a breeze; picturesque shores - from the opposite bank;
deep rivers - along the river bank; news from loved ones - leading a child by the hand; dense forests - the edge of the forest; drank coffee - drank wood.
Orthoepic and accentological norms
SPELLING NORMS
Orthoepy - 1) a branch of linguistics that studies standard literary pronunciation; 2) a set of rules establishing uniform pronunciation that corresponds to the pronunciation standards accepted in the language.
In Russian orthoepy there are several sections:
6) pronunciation of vowels;
7) pronunciation of consonants (hard and soft, combinations of consonants);
8) pronunciation of individual grammatical forms;
9) features of the pronunciation of foreign words;
10) errors in the pronunciation of individual words.
Pronunciation of unstressed vowels
In the modern Russian literary language, the vowels [a], [e], [o] are pronounced clearly only under stress: poppy, stump, house. In an unstressed position, they undergo qualitative and quantitative changes as a result of weakening of articulation. Qualitative reduction is a change in the sound of a vowel with the loss of some features of its timbre. Quantitative reduction is a decrease in its length and strength.
Less susceptible to reduction are vowel sounds that are found in the first pre-stressed syllable, for example, and [o] are pronounced the same way - as a closed sound, designated in phonetic transcription icon - “lid” - [l]: [plkdy] - peace, [blzyr] - bazaar, etc. It differs from the shock [a] in its shorter duration.
The pronunciation of unstressed [o] as a closed [l] is called moderate akan and is a feature of Russian literary pronunciation.
In the remaining unstressed syllables, in place of [o] and [a), a short sound is pronounced, denoted in transcription by the sign: k[b]los6k, del[b], shkdl[b].
At the beginning, unstressed words [a] and [o] are pronounced as [a]: xioma, [a]blaka.
After hard hissing [zh] and [sh], the vowel [a] is also pronounced like [a], if it is in the first pre-stressed syllable: zh[a]rgon, sh[a]gatp, and before soft consonants a sound is pronounced, the middle one between [s] and [e]: f[y e]let, losh[y e]dey.
In place of the letters e and i in the first pre-stressed syllable, a sound is pronounced, intermediate between [e] and [i], denoted in transcription [and e], for example: l[i e]gugiki, z[i e]mlya.
In the remaining unstressed syllables, in place of the letters ee i, a short [i] is pronounced, denoted in the transcription by the sign: p[ъ]tachbk, vyt[b]net.
In place of the combinations aa, on, do, oo in pre-stressed syllables, [a] long is pronounced, denoted in transcription [a], for example: v[animation, z[a]park.
The distinct pronunciation of unstressed [a], [o], [e] is a violation of the orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language. It most often arises under the influence of the written form of the word and produces its letter, rather than its sound, composition. Also, errors in the pronunciation of vowels can be caused by the influence of local dialects.
A number of spelling errors are associated with the failure to distinguish between stressed [e] and [o] (in the letter ё) after soft consonants: scam and scam, grenadier and grenadier, etc. In most native Russian words, the unstressed [e] under stress corresponds to [o], cf .: wife - wives, village - villages, etc.
In many cases, using the sounds [e] and [o], words or forms of words are distinguished: the year that has elapsed and the year that has bled, everything and everything, case (of a noun) and case (of cattle).
However, most often, fluctuations in the pronunciation of [e] and [o] have neither semantic or stylistic meaning. These are equivalent variants of the literary norm. So, according to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language”, the pronunciation of the following words is variant: whitish and additional. whitish, faded, etc. faded, being and being, from afar and extra. from afar, bile and more. bile, maneuver and maneuver, pronominal and pronominal, crossed and additional. crossed, lattice and lattice.
Only [e] should be pronounced in the words: midwife, athlete, scam, bluff, splash, grenadier, co-tribal, peek, pharynx, fishing line, simultaneous, guardianship, sedentary, crypt, perfect view (term), helmet, etc.
Only [o] graphically should be pronounced in the words voyager, engraver, ice, bigamy, slumber, numb, sparkling, juniper, worthless, etc.
Pronounce the words correctly and put emphasis. For help, please consult the spelling dictionary.
Zer, pointed, dusty, populated, cluttered, cramming, from afar, winter quarters, stubble, ice, firebrand, cries out, wandering, foreigner, sedentary, nonsense, edge, cross, brought, tearful, loan, sooty, motley. Exercise 2. Determine in which words we pronounce [e] - graphic e, and in which [o] - graphic e.
Newborn, worthless, incomparable, faded, pompous, pollinated, saddled, despicable, multi-temporal, this, shine, background, swollen, brought, brought, scabrous, humble, silver, unmercenary, athlete, perfect (participle).
Pronunciation of consonants
The pronunciation of consonant sounds is associated with the laws of assimilation and deafening.
At the end of words and in the middle before voiceless consonants, voiced consonants are deafened: bunch - gr[s"t"], meadow - lu[k], mitten - vare[shk], etc.
In the combinations “voiced consonant + voiceless consonant” or “voiceless consonant + voiced consonant”, the first of them is likened to the second: mug - kru[shk]a, conspiracy - [zg]ovor.
Combinations of individual consonants are pronounced as follows:
si/, back - [shsh] or [sh:]: made noise - ra [sh:] knew how]
S^FS) evil [zh] or [f:]: fry - [f:] fry;
zzh at zhzh (inside the root) - [zh"] or [zh:]: later - by [zh:]e\
sch - [w"]: happiness - [sh"]astier\
zch (at the junction of the root and the suffix) - [sh 1]: clerk - order [sh" ]ik;
tch, dch - [h"]: speaker - report[h"]ik, desperate - desperately [h"];
tts, dts - [ts]: well done - young [ts]s, fathers - o[ts]s\
ds, ts (at the junction of the root and suffix) - [ts]: bratskiy - bra[ts]ky, factory - zavo[ts]koy\
in combinations gk, gch [g] is pronounced like [x]: light ~ le[x]ky.
It should be remembered that the voiced consonant [g] at the end of a word should sound like a voiceless plosive [k]. The pronunciation of the voiceless fricative [x] is unacceptable as a dialectal one (a feature of southern dialects). An exception is the word god - 6o[x].
Softening of hard consonants before soft ones (assimilation, i.e. assimilation in softness) is most often observed before the suffix or inside the root: snow - [s"n"ek], Friday - [p"at"n"its", racer - [ gon "sh":ik], from winter - [z"-z"imi].
In some cases, softening hard consonants before soft ones in the modern Russian literary language during pronunciation is optional, i.e. optional: branches [t"v"] and [te"), ate [s"yel] and [siel].
Softening [z] in the suffix -ism is not allowed if the consonant [m] is hard, for example: materialism] and organism [zm].
The combination chn in most cases is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: exact, Milky Way, etc. Only in some words in place of chn is pronounced [shn]: dva[gin"]ik, in patronymics in -ichna (Nikiti[sh]a). There are words with variable pronunciation: two-kopeck [shn] and [chn].
Write down in the transcription the pronunciation of the combination chn in the following words:
Bath-laundry, bagel, barrel, guard, pin, bakery, bottle, bribe-taker, maid, mustard plasters, feverish, buckwheat, loser, five-kopek, bachelorette party, milk, counter, kalachny, housekeeper, on purpose, night owl, trifling, birdhouse, scrambled eggs.
Write down the words in which [shn] should be pronounced.
Careless, felt, bribery, all-night vigil, mustard, shop, fabulous, heart friend, heart muscle, country, petty, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna, boring, candlestick, eyeglass case, barley, everyday, balalaika.
Find words in which the sound [z*] is pronounced. Dirt, request, mowing, idle, hint, pointer, here, do, health, unwell, building, watermelon, brain, station, starry, envious, hello, escape, patriotism, idealism, position, ruthless, wintering, loading, clerk. Indicate the words in which the sound [s] is pronounced.
Epistemology, soft-hearted, convocation, propaganda train, motto, collective farm, union, synthesis, discuss, sign, inscription, low, narrow, fit in, slippery, burned, faded, embroidered, miscalculate, calculation, sad, famous, envious, factory, fry.
Threshing, west, trap, bottom, day, December, good, pretext, horseshoe, jacket, drill, pond, pud, pudding, fall, case (nominative), bribery, subcourses, strand, span (of land), galaxy, code, treasure, pantry, blanket.
I. Faded, pipe, humble, ruthless, miscalculate, partly, thirty, childish, Bolshevik, capitalism, decide, gather.
II. Frozen, dove, jagged, compressed, subscriber, speaker, urban, soldier, anti-fascist, impressionism, achieves, see each other.
III. Embroidered, timid, second, lifeless, carver, clean up, passionate, naval, revanchist, idealism, they say, dreams.
Errors in the pronunciation of some grammatical forms
In place of the letter g at the endings -ого/-ого you should pronounce [в]: red[въ], then[въ], fourth[въ]. The sound [v] in place of the letter g is also pronounced in the words today, today, total.
It is necessary to differentiate in pronunciation unstressed endings 3rd year plural verbs I and II conjugations; ko[l"ut], not ko[l"yt], mu[ch"it], not mu[h"i e t], not [l"ut], not me[l"at], dy[sht], not dy[giut], etc.
In forms of 2 l. units before the reflexive postfix -sya, the consonant sound [sh] is preserved: laugh[gis] or laugh[gis"ъ]. Pronunciation in similar cases long [s] is a spelling error, for example: kupa[shsb] or kupa[shs"b], not kupa[s > b].
Find words in which [g] should be pronounced.
Genesis, no coal, toast, big, today, god, whom, total, today, blue, what, his, beautiful, sweet, kind, beloved, running, no one, neither one nor the other, white, mine, huge, worthless , wonderful, ours, alcohol, money, agreement.
Write down the words in which the sound [v] is pronounced.
Grass, mitten, cheesecake, green, mine, cow, boy, inform, Petrov, Gordian knot, lampoon, no one, in the field, apostrophe, at all, light in the night, petition, girls, delivery, near the fires, near the houses, hair, forever, eight, spring.
Peculiarities of pronunciation of borrowed words
In book words of foreign language origin and in some proper names, the unstressed [o] is preserved: poet, poem, rococo, Zola, Chopin, sonnet, etc. In foreign words that are not perceived by native speakers of the Russian language as borrowing, akanye is observed: abstract, compress, novel, glass, etc.
At the beginning of words of foreign origin and after a vowel, [e] is pronounced in place of the letter e: exotic, exterior, duelist, pirouette.
The consonants l, g, k, x in foreign words before e are softened: duke, scheme, molecule.
The consonants t, d, z, s, i, r most often retain their hardness before e: Voltaire, rendezvous, thermos, masterpiece, etc.
According to the “Spelling Dictionary”, in many words variable pronunciation is allowed before e: parcel [n "d" e] and [nde], businessman [zne] and [me], add. [z"n"e] and [m"e], depot [d"e] and [de]. This is due to the fact that changing the quality of consonants before e in borrowed words is a living process. Softening of consonants before e occurs primarily in common words.
Determine in which words the consonant before e is hard. If you have any difficulties, consult a spelling dictionary.
I. Andante, despotism, adequate, benefit performance, nativity scene, debut, apartheid, asteroid, bulldenezh, waterline, dumping, synthetics, test, tetracycline, plywood.
I. Alma mater, detailing, adenoids, beret, harem, degenerate, atheism, outsider, Burime, riding breeches, citadel, clarinet, sector, masterpiece, Schopenhauer.
Academician, accordion, dispatch, hypotenuse, democracy, neither be nor me, jewelry, sandwich, grapefruit, interior, muffler, phonetics, thermometer, tête-à-tête, director.
Watercolor, mezzanine, non-patent, rowdy, brotherhood, woodcock, grotesque, newspaper, Odessa, rent, tour, tenor, thermos, tuberculosis dispensary, territory.
Write down words in which before e, according to the norms of Russian pronunciation, you can pronounce both a hard consonant and a soft one. Consult a dictionary for help.
Annexation, bacteria, parcel, brunette, beefsteak, businessman, Bremen, Brussels, prodigy, genesis, delegate, devaluation, deductive, Daudet, Descartes, deputy, depot, dermatologist, deformation, editor, resolution, tennis, tradescantia, term.
Errors in pronunciation of individual words
In speech, sometimes some sounds are unjustifiably omitted, others, on the contrary, are inserted or rearranged. Similar errors can be observed when pronouncing foreign words, cf.:
Erroneous: dermat[n]tin (added [n]) incident[n]dent (added [n]) intriguer[t]ka (added [t]) state[n]tify (added [n]) bigot[n] stvo (added [n]) tro[l"e]bus (omitted [l] and [th]) [p"p"i 3 trumpetation (rearrangement of sounds) laboratory [l]atorium (replacing the sound [r] with [l]) legal[t]consultation (added [t]) light presentation (added [d])
Instead of the correct skirt, skirts they say yu[p]ochka, yu[p]ok, preserving the deafening that occurs before the consonant [k] in the form of the nominative case: yu[p]ka, yu[p]ki.
Instead of one [o] in the word porcupine, they pronounce dik[oo]b-raz, and the standard-bearer sounds like a banner[nln6]sets. These gross errors indicate the strong influence of the vernacular.
ACCENTOLOGICAL STANDARDS
Accentology (from the Latin assep1i$ - stress) is a branch of linguistics that studies the features and functions of stress.
In Russian, stress is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages. For example, in Czech the stress is assigned to the first syllable, in Polish - to.
Correct: leatherette incident intriguer state hypocrisy trolleybus perturbation laboratory legal adviser doomsday penultimate, in Armenian - after the last. Since in Russian the stress can fall on any syllable, it is called heterogeneous (daughter, cow, kilogram). This feature makes it difficult to master accentological norms.
The second feature of Russian accent is the presence of mobility/immobility. A movable stress is one that changes its place in different forms of the same word (house - home, can - can). If in various forms words, the stress falls on the same part, it is called motionless (calling - calling - will call - let's call).
The variety of places and mobility of the Russian accent serve to distinguish between different ones that coincide in spelling, for example: kirk ("Protestant church") and kirk ("tool"), trusti ("to be afraid") and trusti ("to jog"), cut off (Soviet view) ) and cut off (non-s. look), the dress is small (kr. shape with lag.) and slept a little (adv.).
For stress, there is the concept of variation, which means that some words have variations in stress. Accent variants have no differences in either lexical or grammatical meanings. But they are often characterized to varying degrees usage and in many cases assigned to different areas of use.
Equal accentological options include: barge and barge, aerate and aerate, dombra and dombra, frosted and frosted, rusted and rusted, flounder and flounder, combiner and combiner, salmon and salmon, etc.
Other regulatory options are divided into basic and permissible, i.e. less desirable ones, for example/ cottage cheese and extra. cottage cheese, cooking and more. cooking.
A number of stress options are associated with the professional sphere of use, cf.: flute - flute (for musicians), bite - bite (for specialists), compass - compass (for sailors).
The stress in borrowed words is specific. It depends on many circumstances: on the emphasis in the source language, in the intermediary language during indirect borrowing, on the age of borrowing and the degree of mastery of the word in the Russian language. Therefore, you should look up stress in borrowed words in dictionaries.
Accent errors
Largest quantity Accentological errors occur when the following forms are formed:
I. In nouns:
monosyllabic nouns m.r. in oblique singular cases have an emphasis on the ending: pancake - pancake, screw - screw, umbrella - umbrella, line - line, rick - stack, pole - pole, stroke - stroke, etc.
two-syllable nouns in V.p. units have an emphasis on the ending (spring - spring, gum - gum, sheep - sheep, foot - foot, etc.) and on the root (winter - winter, board - board, wall - wall, etc.).
a number of nouns zh.r., used with the prepositions in and on, are pronounced with emphasis on the ending: in the chest, on the door, in the night, in the net, in the shadow, on the chain, etc.
nouns in R.p. plural have an emphasis:
a) based on: localities, honors, profits, ice holes, pranks;
b) at the end: branches, handfuls, posts, fortresses, planes, degrees, tablecloths, speeds, sterlets, taxes, stories, news, quarters.
II. In adjectives:
Short names adjectives in m.r. And. s.r. units and in plural have stress on the first syllable of the base, and in zh.r. - at the end, for example: oars - cheerfully - cheerful, but - cheerful.
In verbs:
in past tense verbs in f.r. The emphasis most often falls on the ending: took, lied, drove, asked, began, understood, slept (from sleeping), etc.
Less commonly, based on: shaved, laid, winged, soaped, sewed, slept (from sleep), etc.
Verbs ending in -ate are divided into two groups:
a) with emphasis on and: block, guarantee, debate, compromise, copy, etc.;
b) with emphasis on a: bombard, engrave, group, seal, form, etc.
In participles:
in most passive past participles, the stress in all forms, except the zh.r. form, falls on the stem: taken - taken - taken, but - taken.
participles on -branny, -torn, -zvanny in all forms have an emphasis on the prefix: convened - convened - convened - convened.
In phraseological units, the emphasis is usually kept on the preposition: to climb the wall, to grab your head, to be after your heart, from morning to night.
Read the words, placing the stress correctly.
Alibi, alphabet, aristocracy, analogue, arrest, anatomist. Benefits, barge, fear, pamper, bartender, bows, bows.
Gross, elections, elections, religion, willow, hand over, hand over, hand over.
Gas pipeline, stamp, herald, citizenship, penny. Dispensary, contract, contracts, contracts, leisure, nap. Heretic, heresy. Life, blinds.
Witch doctor, yawn, long, hangnail, ringing, sign.
The industry, iconography, hieroglyph has been around for a long time.
Kilometer, quarter, catalogue, storeroom, rubber, flint, beautiful, more beautiful.
Lapel, hunk.
A glimpse of thinking.
Place emphasis on the following words:
For a long time, intention, obituary.
Officers, encourage, guardianship, facilitate, vulgarize, wholesale, provision.
Sentence, conscription, paralysis, pullover, mindful, noose, dowry.
Belt, shell, dispersal.
Means, orphan, orphans, orphans, statue, plum, carpenter, steward.
Shoe, dancer, sacrament, immediately. Notify, more convenient, strengthen, deceased, aggravate. Phenomenon, fetish, trick, facsimile, chaos, masters. Gypsy, sorrel, holy fool, expert, language barrier, manger, manger.
Read the words, place emphasis:
Cheerful, cheerful, cheerful, cheerful. Young, young, young, young.
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