Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Who are eukaryotes and prokaryotes: comparative characteristics of cells of different kingdoms Differences in the structure of cells of eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Similarities and differences in the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
1. Remember examples of multinucleated cells.
2. What shape can bacteria have?
Prokaryotes.
The oldest organisms on Earth do not have a cell nucleus and are called prokaryotes, that is, prenuclear. They unite into a separate kingdom - Drobyanki, which includes bacteria and blue-green algae.
What are features prokaryotic cells versus eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic cells, as a rule, are much smaller than those of eukaryotes - their sizes rarely exceed 10 microns, and can be as small as 0.3 X 0.2 microns. True, there are exceptions - a huge bacterial cell measuring 100 x 10 microns has been described.
Structure and metabolism of prokaryotes. Prokaryotes, as their name suggests, do not have a formed nucleus.
Single ring molecule DNA, located in prokaryotic cells and conventionally called the bacterial chromosome, is located in the center of the cell, but this DNA molecule does not have a shell and is located directly in the cytoplasm (Fig. 36).
On the outside, prokaryotic cells, like eukaryotic cells, are covered with plasma membrane. The membrane structure of these two groups of organisms is the same. The cell membrane of prokaryotes forms numerous invaginations into the cell - mesosomes. They contain enzymes that provide metabolic reactions in a prokaryotic cell. On top of the plasma membrane, prokaryotic cells are covered with a membrane consisting of carbohydrates, reminiscent of a cell wall. plant cells. However, this wall is not formed by fiber, like in plants, but by other polysaccharides - pectin and murein.
Let's read the information .
Cell - a complex system, consisting of three structural and functional subsystems of the surface apparatus, cytoplasm with organelles and nucleus.
Prokaryotes(prenuclear) - cells that, unlike eukaryotes, do not have formed cell nucleus and other internal membrane organelles.
Eukaryotes(nuclear) - cells that, unlike prokaryotes, have a formed cell nucleus, limited from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane.
Comparative characteristics of the cell structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
|
Structure |
Eukaryotic cells |
Prokaryotic cells |
|
Plants and mushrooms have them; absent in animals in animals. Composed of cellulose (in plants) or chitin (in fungi) |
Eat. Consists of polymeric protein-carbohydrate molecules |
|
|
Yes and surrounded by a membrane |
Nuclear region; nuclear membrane No |
|
|
Ring; contain virtually no protein. Transcription and translation occur in the cytoplasm |
||
|
Yes, but they are smaller in size |
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Most cells have | ||
|
All organisms except higher plants have |
Some bacteria have |
|
|
Plant cells have |
No. Photosynthesis of green and purple occurs in bacteriochlorophylls (pigments) |
|
|
Image |
Eukaryotic cell |
Prokaryotic cell
|
Cell wall- a rigid cell membrane located outside the cytoplasmic membrane and performing structural, protective and transport functions. Found in most bacteria, archaea, fungi and plants. Animal cells and many protozoa do not have a cell wall.
Plasmatic(cellular) membrane- a superficial, peripheral structure surrounding the protoplasm of plant and animal cells.
Core- an obligatory part of the cell in many unicellular and all multicellular organisms.
The term “nucleus” (lat. nucleus) was first used by R. Brown in 1833, when he described the spherical structures he observed in plant cells.
Cytoplasm- the extranuclear part of the cell that contains organelles. Limited from environment plasma membrane.
Chromosomes- structural elements of the cell nucleus containing DNA, which contains the hereditary information of the organism.
Endoplasmic reticulum(EPS) - cellular organelle; a system of tubules, vesicles and “cisterns” delimited by membranes.
Located in the cytoplasm of the cell. Participates in metabolic processes, ensuring the transport of substances from the environment into the cytoplasm and between individual intracellular structures.
Ribosomes- intracellular particles consisting of ribosomal RNA and proteins. Present in the cells of all living organisms.
Golgi complex(Golgi apparatus) is a cell organelle involved in the formation of its metabolic products (various secretions, collagen, glycogen, lipids, etc.) and in the synthesis of glycoproteins.
Golgi Camillo(1844 - 1926) - Italian histologist.
Developed (1873) a method for preparing drugs nerve tissue. Installed two types nerve cells. Described the so-called Golgi apparatus, etc. Nobel Prize(1906, together with S. Ramon y Cajal).
Lysosomes- structures in animal cells and plant organisms, containing enzymes capable of breaking down (i.e. lysing - hence the name) proteins, polysaccharides, peptides, nucleic acids.
Mitochondria- organelles of animal and plant cells. Redox reactions take place in mitochondria, providing cells with energy. The number of mitochondria in one cell ranges from a few to several thousand. Prokaryotes do not have (their function is performed by cell membrane).
Vacuoles- cavities filled with liquid (cell sap) in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.
Cilia- thin thread-like and bristle-like cell outgrowths capable of movement. Characteristic of ciliates, eyelash worms, in vertebrates and humans - for epithelial cells respiratory tract, oviducts, uterus.
Flagella- thread-like mobile cytoplasmic cell outgrowths, characteristic of many bacteria, all flagellates, zoospores and sperm of animals and plants. Used for movement in a liquid environment.Chloroplasts- intracellular organelles of a plant cell in which photosynthesis occurs; painted in green color(they contain chlorophyll).
Microtubules- protein intracellular structures that make up the cytoskeleton.
They are hollow cylinders with a diameter of 25 nm.
Microtubules play a role in cells structural components and are involved in many cellular processes, including mitosis, cytokinesis and vesicular transport.
Microfilaments(MF) - threads consisting of protein molecules and present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
They have a diameter of about 6-8 nm.
Organoids(organelles) are permanent cellular components that perform specific functions in the life of the cell.
Used Books:
1.Biology: complete guide to prepare for the Unified State Exam. / G.I. Lerner. - M.: AST: Astrel; Vladimir; VKT, 2009
2.Biology: textbook. for students of the 11th grade of general education. Institutions: Basic level / Ed. prof. I.N. Ponomareva. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2008.
3.Biology for those entering universities. Intensive course / G.L.Bilich, V.A.Kryzhanovsky. - M.: Onyx Publishing House, 2006.
4.General biology: textbook for 11th grade general education institutions / V.B.Zakharov, S.G.Sonin. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2006.
5.Biology. General biology. Grades 10-11: textbook. for general education institutions: a basic level of/ D.K. Belyaev, P.M. Borodin, N.N. Vorontsov and others, ed. D.K. Belyaeva, G.M. Dymshitsa; Ross. acad. Sciences, Ross. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". - 9th ed. - M.: Education, 2010.
6.Biology: textbook / reference manual / A.G. Lebedev. M.: AST: Astrel. 2009.
7.Biology. Full course general education high school: tutorial for schoolchildren and applicants / M.A. Valovaya, N.A. Sokolova, A.A. Kamensky. - M.: Exam, 2002.
Internet resources used.
Unity of cell structure.
The contents of any cell are separated from external environment special structure - plasma membrane (plasmalemma). This isolation allows you to create a very special environment inside the cell, unlike what surrounds it. Therefore, processes that do not occur anywhere else can occur in the cell; they are called life processes.
The internal environment of a living cell, bounded by the plasma membrane, is called cytoplasm. It includes hyaloplasm(basic transparent substance) and cell organelles, as well as various non-permanent structures - inclusions. Organelles that are present in any cell also include ribosomes, where it happens protein synthesis.
The structure of eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotes- These are organisms whose cells have a nucleus. Core- this is the very organelle of the eukaryotic cell in which the hereditary information recorded in the chromosomes is stored and from which the hereditary information is transcribed. Chromosome is a DNA molecule integrated with proteins. The core contains nucleolus- the place where other important organelles involved in protein synthesis are formed - ribosomes. But ribosomes are only formed in the nucleus, and they work (i.e. synthesize protein) in the cytoplasm. Some of them are free in the cytoplasm, and some are attached to membranes, forming a network, which is called endoplasmic.
Ribosomes- non-membrane organelles.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membrane-bounded tubules.
There are two types: smooth and granular. Ribosomes are located on the membranes of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, so proteins are synthesized and transported there. And the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site of synthesis and transport of carbohydrates and lipids. There are no ribosomes on it.
Mitochondria The synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and fats requires energy, which is produced in the eukaryotic cell by the “energy stations” of the cell - mitochondria.
- double-membrane organelles in which the process of cellular respiration occurs. Organic compounds are oxidized on mitochondrial membranes and chemical energy is accumulated in the form of special energy molecules (ATP). There is also a place in the cell where organic compounds can accumulate and from where they can be transported - this is Golgi apparatus,
Lysosomes system of flat membrane bags.
It is involved in the transport of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The Golgi apparatus also produces organelles for intracellular digestion -
lysosomes.- single-membrane organelles, characteristic of animal cells, contain enzymes that can break down proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids. A cell may contain organelles that do not have a membrane structure, such as ribosomes and a cytoskeleton. Cytoskeleton
- this is a musculoskeletal cell system, includes microfilaments, cilia, flagella, a cell center that produces microtubules and centrioles.
There are organelles characteristic only of plant cells - plastids. There are: chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts. The process of photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts. Also in plant cells vacuoles - products cell activity
, which are reservoirs of water and compounds dissolved in it. IN
Prokaryotes eukaryotic organisms
include plants, animals and fungi.
The structure of prokaryotic cells. aerobic respiration, then for this purpose special protrusions of the plasma membrane are used - mesosomes. If bacteria are photosynthetic, then the process of photosynthesis occurs on photosynthetic membranes - thylakoids.
Protein synthesis in prokaryotes occurs at ribosomes. IN prokaryotic cell few organelles.
Hypotheses of the origin of organelles of eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells appeared on Earth earlier than eukaryotic cells.
1) symbiotic hypothesis explains the mechanism of emergence of some organelles of the eukaryotic cell - mitochondria and photosynthetic plastids.
2) Intussusception hypothesis- states that the origin of the eukaryotic cell comes from the fact that the ancestral form was an aerobic prokaryote. The organelles in it arose as a result of invagination and detachment of parts of the shell, followed by functional specialization into the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts of other organelles.
| Signs | Eukaryotes | Prokaryotes |
| Nuclear envelope | Present | Absent |
| DNA | It is in the form of linear chromosomes, where DNA is associated with histone proteins, and proteins account for up to 65% of the chromosome mass | Usually one circular chromosome, always associated with the plasma membrane. Supercoiled “naked” (without proteins) DNA is assembled into loops (about 120) extending from the central region, in which they are connected by a small number of protein molecules |
| Golgi complex | Present | Absent |
| EPS | Present | Absent |
| Lysosomes | Present | None |
| **Flagella | Covered with a membrane, in the middle there are two central microtubules, along the periphery - nine double microtubules, at the base - basal bodies | Fundamentally different from eukaryotic flagella. At the base there is a basal body with 2 or 4 discs and a hook. The flagellum itself is a microtubule made from the protein flagellin. |
| Ribosomes | Consist of two subunits, sedimentation coefficient 80, contain protein molecules and four rRNA molecules | Consist of two subunits, sedimentation coefficient 70, contain protein molecules and three rRNA molecules |
| Cell center | Present | Absent |
| **Cyto-skeleton | Present | Absent |
| Signs | Eukaryotes | Prokaryotes |
| Mitochondria | Present | None |
| Plastids in autotrophs | Present | None |
| Method of Absorbing Poverty | Due to osmosis; by phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Mouth capture of food in multicellular animals | By osmosis |
| Digestive vacuoles | Present | None |
Task 2.21. Fill the table
Table 15
Comparative characteristics of eukaryotic cells
| Signs | Animal Kingdom | Plant Kingdom | Kingdom Mushrooms |
| Cell wall | Absent, there is a glycocalyx on the surface of the membrane | Formed by cellulose (fiber) | Educated chitin |
| Reserve nutrient | Glycogen | Starch | Glycogen |
| Presence of plastids | As a rule, there are no | Present | None |
| Write mitochondria | Present | Present | Present |
| Centrioles in the cell center | Present | Absent in higher plants | None |
| Method of food absorption | Capturing food | By osmosis | By osmosis |
DZ#14
Task 2.22. Test "Core. Eukaryotes, prokaryotes"
1. The core shell is formed:
1. A membrane having 3. One membrane having pores
pores. none.
2. Two membranes, 4. Two membranes, pores
has pores. none.
2. The nucleoli in the nucleus provide:
1. Protein synthesis. 3. Formation of subunits
2. DNA doubling. ribosomes
4. Formation of centrioles of the cell center.
3. Cells store hereditary information:
1.DNA. Z. Lipids.
2. Proteins of chromosomes. 4. Carbohydrates.
*4. Prokaryotes include:
1. Viruses. 4. Blue-green.
2. Mushrooms. 5. Animals.
3.
Plants. 6. Bacteria.
*5. Eukaryotes include:
1. Viruses. 4. Blue-green.
2. Mushrooms. 5. Animals.
3. Plants. 6. Bacteria.
*6. The following are considered symbionts of a eukaryotic cell:
1. Ribosomes. 3. Mitochondria.
2.
Golgi complex. 4. Plastids.
*7. Prokaryotes do not have:
1. Mitochondria. 5. Golgi complex.
2. Plastids. 6. EPS.
3. Core. 7. Lysosomes.
4. Ribosomes. 8. Cellular center.
8. Substance characteristic of the cell wall of fungi:
1. Cellulose (fiber). 3. Murein.
2. Chitin. 4. There is no such substance.
9. Storage nutrient characteristic of mushrooms:
1. Starch. 3. Glycogen.
2. Glucose. 4. There is no such substance.
10. The cell center does not have centrioles:
1. Lower plants. 3. Multicellular animals.
2. Higher plants. 4. Protozoa.
Task 2.23. Determine the correctness of judgments,
related to the topic “Cell organoids.
Prokaryotes, eukaryotes"
1. Lysosomes are formed in the Golgi complex.
2. Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
3. Ribosomes are attached to the membranes of the rough ER.
4. The Golgi complex is responsible for the removal of biosynthetic products from the cell.
5. Mitochondria are present in plant and animal cells.
6. Chromoplasts are green in color.
7. Leukoplasts can transform into chloroplasts.
8. Plant cells are characterized by a central vacuole.
9. Ribosomal subunits are synthesized in the nucleoli.
10. The nucleus is a single-membrane organelle.
11. The synthesis of ribosomal proteins occurs in the nucleus.
**12. Higher plants do not have centrioles.
13. Chloroplasts are found in fungal cells.
14. Plants do not have mitochondria.
** 15. Algae have centrioles in the cell center.
16. Fungi are eukaryotes.
17. Mushrooms belong to the plant kingdom.
18. The cell wall of fungi includes chitin.
19. The main reserve substance of mushrooms is starch.
20. There are no chloroplasts in fungal cells.
21. Prokaryotes have circular DNA.
22. Prokaryotes have one linear chromosome.
**23. Bacteria have 70S ribosomes.
**24. Bacteria have 80S ribosomes.
TEST 2
Task 2.24. Questions for testing on the topic “Structure and functions of the cell”
I. When and by whom were the first two provisions of the cellular theory created?
2. Who proved that new cells are formed by dividing the mother cell?
3. Who showed that the cell is the unit of development?
4. What is the plasmalemma formed by?
5. What layers do the membranes of animal and plant cells consist of?
6. List the functions of the cell membrane.
7. Name the types of transport across the cell membrane.
8. What are phagocytosis and pinocytosis?
9. In what part of the cell are ribosomal subunits formed?
10. What are the functions of ribosomes?
11. ** 11. What is the sedimentation coefficient of prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes?
12. What types of endoplasmic reticulum do you know and what are their functions?
13. What functions does the Golgi complex perform?
14. What functions do lysosomes perform?
15. Which cell organelles are called respiratory organelles?
16. How do interconversions of plastids occur?
17. What is it called internal environment in mitochondria and plastids?
18. What are the centrioles of the cell center formed by?
19. Which eukaryotes do not have centrioles?
20. What are the functions of the cell center?
21. List the organelles of cell movement.
22. List the single-membrane cell organelles.
23. List the double-membrane cell organelles.
24. List the non-membrane cell organelles.
25. Which cellular organelles contain DNA?
26. What are the functions of the kernel?
27.What organelles are absent in the plant cell of higher plants?
28. What substance is characteristic of plant cell walls?
29.What organelles are absent in the cells of multicellular animals?
30. What organelles of a eukaryotic cell arose as a result of symbiosis?
31. Which cellular organelles are capable of self-duplication?
32. Give the classification of eukaryotes.
33. What substance is characteristic of fungal cell walls?
34. What storage substance is characteristic of fungal cells?
35. Give the classification of prokaryotes
36. What organelles are missing in prokaryotes?
37. What substance is characteristic of bacterial cell walls?
38. How does prokaryotes reproduce?
39. In what form is the genetic material found in a eukaryotic cell?
40.What form is the genetic material in a prokaryotic cell?
DZ#15
Task 3.1. Fill the table
Table 16 Differences in metabolism between heterotrophs and autotrophs
Task 3.2. Determine the correctness of judgments related to the topic “Metabolism and energy”
1. Heterotrophic organisms use an inorganic carbon source - CO 2 - to synthesize organic compounds.
2. Heterotrophic organisms that use the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances as an energy source are classified as chemoheterotrophs.
3. The first heterotrophic organisms on Earth were anaerobic organisms.
4. Currently, all heterotrophs use oxygen for respiration and for the oxidation of organic substances.
5. Autotrophic organisms are able to use carbon dioxide for the synthesis of organic compounds.
6. Chemoautotrophic organisms use the energy of chemical bonds of molecules of organic substances as the main source of energy.
7. Photoautotrophic organisms use light energy as an energy source and CO 2 as a carbon source
8. The most ancient photosynthetic organisms on Earth (green and purple bacteria) release O 2 during photosynthesis.
9. Blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria) first began to release oxygen into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
10. As a result of the symbiosis of oxidizing bacteria with an anaerobic cell, bacteria were transformed into mitochondria.
11. As a result of the symbiosis of blue-greens with an ancient eukaryotic cell, plants appeared, while blue-greens were transformed into chloroplasts.
12. Assimilation is a set of metabolic reactions in a cell.
13. Dissimilation is a set of decay and oxidation reactions occurring in the cell.
14. Plastic metabolic reactions occur with energy consumption.
15. Energy metabolism reactions occur with the release of energy.
Exercise 3.3. Fill the table
Table 17 Reactions of assimilation and dissimilation
DZ#16
Table 18 Photosynthesis
| Phases of photosynthesis | Processes occurring in this phase | Process results |
| Light phase | Oxidation of chlorophyll occurs due to light energy. Its reduction occurs due to electrons taken from the hydrogen of water. A potential difference is created between the inner and outer sides of the thylakoid membrane, and with the help of ATP synthetase, ATP is formed, and NADP+ is reduced to NADP H 2 | Photolysis of water occurs, which releases O 2, light energy is converted into the energy of chemical bonds ATP and NADPH 2 |
| Dark phase | Commitment in progress CO?. In the reactions of the Calvin cycle it turns into COg into glucose due to ATP and the reducing force of NADP H^ formed in the light phase | Monosaccharide formation |
Exercise 3.8. Test "Photosynthesis"
*1. Maximum use during the light phase of photosynthesis:
1. Red rays. 3. Green rays.
2. Yellow rays. 4. Blue rays.
2. Photosynthetic pigments are located:
3. In the stroma. layer.
3. Protons accumulate during the light phase of photosynthesis:
1. In thylakoid membranes. 4. In the intermembrane
2. In the thylakoid cavity. space chloro-
3. In the stroma. layer.
4. Reactions of the dark phase of photosynthesis occur:
1. In thylakoid membranes. 4. In the intermembrane
2. In the thylakoid cavity. space chloro-
3.
In the stroma. layer.
*5. During the light phase of photosynthesis, the following occurs:
1. ATP formation. 3. Release of O 2
2. Formation of NADP ■ H. 4. Formation of carbohydrates.
6. B dark phase photosynthesis occurs:
1. ATP formation. 3. Og release
2. Formation of NADP H2. 4. Formation of carbohydrates.
7. During photosynthesis, O 2 is released, which is formed during decomposition:
1.CO 2. Z.CO 2 and H 2 O.
2. (I 2 O.) 4. C 6 H, 2 O 6.
8. Reactions of the Calvin cycle occur:
1. In thylakoid membranes. 3. In the cavities of the thylakoids.
2. In the stroma. 4. Both in thylakoids and stroma.
*9. The following are capable of synthesizing organic substances using an inorganic carbon source:
10. The following are capable of synthesizing organic substances using only an organic carbon source:
1. Chemoautotrophs. 3. Photoautotrophs.
2. Chemoheterotrophs. 4. All of the above.
DZ#17
Topic: Energy exchange
Task 3.9. Test "Glycolysis"
*1. On preparatory stage energy exchange occurs:
1. Hydrolysis of proteins to 2. Hydrolysis of fats
amino acids to glycerol and fatty acids.
3. Hydrolysis of carbohydrates 4. Hydrolysis of nucleic acids
to monosaccharides. acids to nucleiotides.
2. Provide glycolysis:
1. Digestive enzymes - 3. Krebs cycle enzymes.
tract and lysosomes.
2. Cytoplasmic enzymes. 4. Enzymes of the respiratory chain.
3. As a result of oxygen-free oxidation in animal cells with a lack of O 2, the following is formed:
1.PVC. 3. Ethanol.
4. As a result of oxygen-free oxidation in plant cells with a lack of O 2, the following is formed:
1. PVK. 3. Ethyl alcohol
2. Lactic acid. 4. Acetyl-CoA.
5. The energy generated during the glycolysis of one mole of glucose is equal to:
1.200kJ. 3. bOOKJ.
2. 400 kJ. 4. 800 kJ.
6. Three moles of glucose underwent glycolysis in animal cells when there was a lack of oxygen. In this case, carbon dioxide was released:
1.3 mol. 4. Carbon dioxide in animals
2.6 mol. cells during glycolysis
3.12 mol. doesn't stand out.
**7. TO biological oxidation relate:
1. Oxidation of substance A in the reaction: A + O 2 -» AO 2
2. Dehydrogenation of substance A in the reaction: AN 2 + B -> A + BH.
3. Loss of electrons (for example, Fe 2+ in the reaction: Fe 2+ -^Fe 3+ + e).
4. Acquisition of electrons (for example, Fe 3+ in the reaction: Fe 2+ ->
-> Fe 3+ + e~).
*8. The reactions of the preparatory stage of energy metabolism occur:
1. In the digestive 3. In the cytoplasm.
tract. 4. In lysosomes.
2. In mitochondria.
9. Energy that is released in the reactions of the preparatory stage of energy metabolism:
2. Stored in the form of ATP.
3. Most of it is dissipated in the form of heat, less is stored in the form of ATP.
4. A smaller part is dissipated in the form of heat, a larger part is stored in the form of ATP.
10. Energy released in glycolysis reactions:
1. Dissipated in the form of heat.
2. Stored in the form of ATP.
3. 120 kJ is dissipated in the form of heat, 80 kJ is stored in the form of ATP.
4. 80 kJ is dissipated in the form of heat, 120 kJ is stored in the form of ATP.
Task 3.11. Oxygen Oxidation Test
1. Oxygen oxidation reactions occur:
1. In the cytoplasm of the cell. 3. In all organelles and cytoplasm.
2. In the cell nucleus. 4. In mitochondria.
2. As a result of glycolysis, the following is formed and enters the mitochondrion:
1. Glucose. 3. Pyruvic acid.
2. Lactic acid. 4. Acetyl-CoA.
3. The Krebs cycle includes:
1.PVC. 3. Ethyl alcohol.
2. Lactic acid. 4. Acetyl group.
*4. In the reactions of the Krebs cycle:
1. Dehydrogenation of the acetyl group.
3. One molecule of ATP is formed when each acetyl group is destroyed.
4. As a result of the work of ATP synthetase, 34 moles of ATP are formed.
5. Krebs cycle reactions occur:
1. In the mitochondrial matrix.
2. In the cytoplasm of cells.
3. On the inner membrane of mitochondria on enzymes of the respiratory chain.
4. In the intermembrane space of mitochondria.
6. When complete destruction in the mitochondria of one PVK molecule is formed:
1.12 pairs of hydrogen atoms. 3. 6 pairs of hydrogen atoms.
7. With the complete destruction of one glucose molecule in respiratory chain transported:
1. 12 pairs of hydrogen atoms. 3. 6 pairs of hydrogen atoms.
2. 10 pairs of hydrogen atoms. 4. 5 pairs of hydrogen atoms.
8. The mitochondrial proton reservoir is located:
1. In the intermembrane space.
2. In the matrix.
3.On inside inner membrane
4. In the matrix and on the inner side of the inner membrane.
9. When ATP synthetase reduces 12 pairs of hydrogen atoms, it forms:
1. 38 ATP molecules. 3. 34.ATP molecules.
2. 36 ATP molecules. 4. 42 ATP molecules.
10. With the complete oxidation of one mole of glucose, the following is formed:
1. 38 moles of ATP. 3. 34 moles of ATP.
2. 36 moles of ATP. 4. 42 moles of ATP.
DZ#18
Task 3.15. Test “DNA code. Transcription"
1. The triplet nature of the genetic code is manifested in the fact that:
1. One amino acid is encoded by not one, not two, but three nucleotides.
2. The degeneracy of the genetic code is manifested in the fact that:
3. One amino acid can be encoded by up to 6 codons.
4. The reading frame is always equal to three nucleotides; one nucleotide cannot be part of two codons.
5. All organisms on Earth have the same genetic code.
3. The uniqueness of the genetic code is manifested in the fact that:
1. One amino acid is encoded by not one, not two, but three nucleotides.
2. One codon always codes for one amino acid.
3. One amino acid can be encoded by up to 6 codons.
4. The reading frame is always equal to three nucleotides; one nucleotide cannot be part of two codons.
5. All organisms on Earth have the same genetic code.
4. The universality of the genetic code is manifested in the fact that:
2. One codon always codes for one amino acid.
5. The non-overlap of the genetic code is manifested in the fact that:
1. One amino acid is encoded by not one, not two, but three nucleotides.
2. One codon always codes for one amino acid.
3. One amino acid can be encoded by up to 6 codons.
4. The reading frame is always equal to three nucleotides; one nucleotide cannot be part of two codons.
5. All organisms on Earth have the same genetic code.
6.Transcription is:
1. DNA doubling.
2. Synthesis of mRNA on DNA.
3. Synthesis of a polypeptide chain using mRNA.
4.
Synthesis of mRNA, then synthesis of a polypeptide chain on it.
*7. DNA contains:
1. In the core. 5. In the Golgi complex.
2. In mitochondria.
3. In plastids..
4. In lysosomes. 8.
*8. The structure can be encrypted in DNA:
1. Polypeptides. 5. rRNA.
2. Polysaccharides. 6. Oligosaccharides.
3. Fat. 7. Monosaccharides.
4. tRNA. 8. Fatty acids.
9. DNA code triplets code:
1.10 amino acids. 3. 26 amino acids.
2.20 amino acids. 4. 170 amino acids.
10. All the variety of amino acids that make up proteins encode:
1. 20 code triplets. 3. 61 code triplet.
2. 64 code triplets. 4. 26 code triplets.
11. The matrix for transcription is:
1. DNA coding strand. 3. mRNA.
2. Both circuits. 4. DNA strand, complementary
codogenic.
*12. For transcription you need:
1. ATP. 5.TTF.
2. UTF. 6. DNA coding strand.
3. GTP. 7. Ribosomes.
4. CTF. 8. RNA polymerase.
13. The section of the DNA molecule from which transcription occurs
contains 30,000 nucleotides. For transcription you will need:
1. 30,000 nucleotides. 3. 60,000 nucleotides.
2. 15,000 nucleotides. 4. 90,000 nucleotides.
14. RNA polymerase moves during transcription:
15. RNA polymerase is capable of assembling polynucleotide:
1. From the 5" end to the 3" end. 3. Starting from either end.
2. From the 3" end to the 5" end. 4. Depending on the enzyme.
DZ#19
Task 3.18. Fill the table
Table 20 Protein biosynthesis
| What's happening on at this stage | What is necessary | |
| Transcription: production of mRNA | /. DNA coding strand | /. Encodes a sequence of amino acids |
| 2. RNA polymerase enzyme | 2. Forms mRNA | |
| 3. ATP, UTP, GTP, CTP | 3. Material and energy for synthesis and RNA | |
| Translation: synthesis of mRNA of the molypeptide chain | 1. mRNA | 1. Transfers information about the structure of the protein from the nucleus to the cytoplasm |
| 2. Ribosomes | 2. Organelles responsible for the synthesis of polypeptides | |
| What happens at this stage | What is necessary | Functions of structures, substances and organelles taking part in the process |
| Translation: synthesis of a polypeptide chain using mRNA | 3. tRNA | 3. Molecules that transport amino acids to ribosomes |
| 4. Amino acids | 4. Construction material | |
| 5. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes | 5. Amino acids are attached to the corresponding tRNA using the energy of ATP | |
| 6. Energy in the form of AT F, GTP | 6. Energy for the addition of amino acids to the 3" end of tRNA, for scanning, formation of peptide bonds, movement of the ribosome |
Task 3.19. Test "Broadcast"
*1. Matrix synthesis reactions include:
1. DNA replication. 3. Broadcast.
2. Transcription. 4. Formation of nucleotides.
2. If messenger RNA consists of 156 nucleotides (together with the terminal triplet), then it encodes:
1. 156 amino acids. 3. 52 amino acids.
2.
155 amino acids. 4. 51 amino acids.
**3. How much is known various types tRNA?
1. 20 different types, as many as amino acids.
2. One species that transports all 20 types of amino acids.
3.61 types of tRNA, as many as code triplets.
4.More than 30, since several anticodon-containing tRNAs can bind to one codon, the last nucleotide in the anticodon is not always important.
4. An amino acid binds to its tRNA:
1. Using the enzyme aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase without ATP consumption.
2. Using the enzyme aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase with the consumption of ATP.
3.Using the enzyme RNA polymerase without the consumption of ATP.
4. Using the enzyme RNA polymerase, which consumes ATP.
**5. How is the broadcast initiated?
1. The ribosome attaches to the 5" end of the mRNA; methionine tRNA with methionine enters the P-site.
2. The small ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA and scans it to the initiation codon, then the large ribosomal subunit attaches and methionine tRNA with methionine enters the P-site.
3. (The small ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA, tRNA with methionine enters the P-site, the initiation complex scans the mRNA to the initiation codon, then the large ribosomal subunit attaches.)
6. Each following tRNA with its amino acid falls into:
1. In any, or A-, or P-site of the ribosome.
2. Only in the A-site of the ribosome.
3. Only in the P-site of the ribosome.
4. Depending on the type of tRNA, some are in the A-site, others are in the P-site.
7. The functional center of the ribosome contains:
1.3 nucleotides. 3.9 nucleotides.
2. 6 nucleotides. 4. 12 nucleotides.
*8. To broadcast you need:
1. DNA coding strand.
2.DNA polymerase.
3.RNA polymerase.
4.Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases.
5. Nucleotides.
9. Synthesis polypeptide chain on the mRNA matrix is:
1. Replication. 3. Transcription.
2.Broadcast. 4. Processing.
10. A ribosome can move along mRNA:
1. From 5" to 3" end. 3. In both directions.
2. From 3" to 5" end. 4. Depending on syn-
the thesed protein.
TEST 3
Exercise 3.2O. Questions To test on the topic “Metabolism”
1. What is assimilation?
2. What is dissimilation?
3. What organisms are called autotrophs?
4. What groups are autotrophs divided into?
5. What organisms are called heterotrophs?
6. What three stages of energy metabolism do you know?
7. What are the products of hydrolysis of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nuclei
inic acids at the preparatory stage?
8. What happens to the energy released to the preparer?
at this stage of energy exchange?
9. Where are the enzymes of the oxygen-free stage of energy metabolism located?
me?
10. What products and how much energy are produced during glycolysis?
11. What are the names of the reactions associated with dehydrogenation and decarboxylation that occur in the mitochondrial matrix?
12. How many ATP molecules are formed during dehydrogenation and decarboxylation of the acetyl group in the Krebs cycle?
13. How many pairs of hydrogen atoms are transported to the respiratory chain during complete dehydrogenation of 2 PVC molecules?
14. What enzymes pump protons into the mitochondrial proton reservoir?
15. . Write general formula energy metabolism.
16. What can be encoded in DNA?
17. What does triplet genetic code mean?
18. What does the uniqueness of the genetic code mean? How many triplets code for 20 types of amino acids?
19. What is the degeneracy of the genetic code?
20. What does the universality of the genetic code mean?
21. What does non-overlapping genetic code mean?
22. What is transcription?
23. What is needed for transcription?
24. A section of DNA contains 300,000 nucleotides. How many nucleotides are needed for replication and transcription?
25. In what direction does RNA polymerase move along the coding strand?
26. mRNA, together with the terminal triplet, consists of 156 nucleotides. How many amino acids are encoded in this mRNA?
27. What is broadcast?
28. What is needed for broadcasting?
29. How many nucleotides are there in the FCR of a ribosome?
30. Which region of the FCR receives tRNA with a new amino acid?
31. Write the general formula for photosynthesis.
33. Where do the light reactions of photosynthesis occur?
34. What happens during the light phase of photosynthesis?
35. Where are they proton tanks in the chloroplast?
36. Where do dark reactions of photosynthesis occur?
37. What happens during the dark phase of photosynthesis?
**38. What photosystem(s) do photosynthetic sulfur bacteria have?
**39. What photosystem(s) do blue-greens have?
40. Who discovered the process of chemosynthesis?
Related information.
Animation script O 9 9 – L-7
"Comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells".
Screen 1.
Laboratory work: “Comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.”
(Fig. 1) 
(Fig. 2)
Screen 2
Equipment: table, on the table:
Microscope tissue napkin ready-made microscopic preparations of bacteria and eukaryotic cells
Tables of the cell structure of eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Screen 3.
(Top line of the screen) Laboratory work: “Comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.”
Goal: To get acquainted with the two levels of cells, study the structure bacterial cell, compare the cell structure of bacteria and protozoa.
Screen 4. (Top line of screen) Eukaryotes.
Demonstration of text + voiceover
(Fig. 3) (Fig. 4) (Fig. 5)
Eukaryotes or nuclear (from the Greek eu - good and carion - core) are organisms containing a clearly defined nucleus in their cells. Eukaryotes include unicellular and multicellular plants, fungi and animals, that is, all organisms except bacteria. Eukaryotic cells different kingdoms differ in a number of characteristics. But in many ways their structure is similar. What are the features of eukaryotic cells? From previous lessons, you know that animal cells do not have a cell wall, which plants and fungi have, and there are no plastids, which plants and some bacteria have. Vacuoles in animal cells are very small and unstable. Centrioles have not been found in higher plants.
Screen 5. (Top line of screen) Prokaryotes.
Demonstration of text + voiceover
(Fig. 6)
Prokaryotic or prenuclear cells (from the Latin pro - instead, in front and carion) do not have a formed nucleus. Their nuclear substance is located in the cytoplasm and is not delimited from it by a membrane. Prokaryotes are the most ancient primitive single-celled organisms. These include bacteria and cyanobacteria. They reproduce by simple division. In prokaryotes, a single circular DNA molecule is located in the cytoplasm, which is called a nucleoid or bacterial chromosome, in which all the hereditary information of the bacterial cell is recorded. Ribosomes are located directly in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotic cells are haploid. They do not contain mitochondria, the Golgi complex, or the ER. ATP synthesis occurs in them at the plasma membrane. Prokaryotic cells, like eukaryotic cells, are covered by a plasma membrane. On top of which is located cell wall and mucous capsule. Despite their relative simplicity, prokaryotes are typical independent cells.
Screen 6 (
Demonstration of the text + voiceover: “Before practical work you need to read the instructions."
The sentences appear sequentially above the picture.
1. Examine prepared micropreparations of eukaryotic cells under a microscope: amoeba vulgaris, Chlamydomonas and Mucor.
2. Examine the finished microslide of a prokaryotic cell under a microscope.
3. Consider tables with the structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
4. Fill out the table, noting the presence of an organoid “+” and the absence of “-”. Write which organisms are prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Comparative characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
| Signs | Prokaryotes | Eukaryotes |
| Availability of a designed kernel | ||
| Cytoplasm | ||
| Mitochondria | ||
| Ribosomes | ||
| Which organisms are |
Screen 7 ( Top line) Laboratory work: “Comparison of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.”
| Demonstration | Voice acting |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A microscope and ready-made micropreparations of plant tissues appear. A hand wipes the mirror with a napkin, then an eye appears, looking into the eyepiece. Hands place the specimen of amoeba vulgaris on the stage, then rotate the revolving table, the lens stops, the image of the lens and the numbers on it are enlarged (x8), the lens returns to its original size. Hands rotate the mirror. Increasing the drug. Zoom in and show microscopic specimen of amoeba
A ready-made chlamydomonas preparation appears. Hands place the specimen on the stage. The eye is directed towards the eyepiece. Zoom in and show the structure of the cell.
The preparation is removed and the microscope is removed. The finished drug Mukora appears. Hands place the specimen on the stage. The eye is directed towards the eyepiece. Zoom in and show the structure of the cell.
The preparation is removed and the microscope is removed. A ready-made preparation of a bacterial cell appears. Hands place the specimen on the stage. The eye is directed towards the eyepiece. Zoom in and show the structure of the cell.
Tables appear with the structure of eukaryotic cells
And prokaryotes
A notebook and pen appear. One hand takes the notebook, opens it and fills out the table.
Output text: Inside a prokaryotic cell there are no organelles surrounded by membranes, i.e. it has no endoplasmic reticulum, no mitochondria, no plastids, no Golgi complex, no nucleus. Prokaryotes often have organelles of movement - flagella and cilia. Eukaryotes have a nucleus and organelles, a more complex structure that indicates the process of evolution. | Prepare the microscope for use. Examine prepared micropreparations of eukaryotic cells under a microscope. Consider tables with the structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Fill out the table, noting the presence of the organoid “+” and the absence of “-”. Write which organisms are prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Draw a conclusion: Are there fundamental differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? What does this mean? |
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(Fig. 14)