D. According to the characteristics of perception

Illusion is an optical illusion.

Types of optical illusion:

optical illusion based on color perception;
optical illusion based on contrast;
twisting illusions;
optical illusion of depth perception;
optical illusion of size perception;
contour optical illusion;
optical illusion "shifters";
Ames room;
moving optical illusions.
stereo illusions, or, as they are also called: “3d pictures”, stereo pictures.

ILLUSION OF BALL SIZE
Isn't it true that the size of these two balls is different? Is the top ball larger than the bottom?

In fact, this is an optical illusion: these two balls are absolutely equal. You can use a ruler to check. By creating the effect of a receding corridor, the artist managed to deceive our vision: the top ball seems larger to us, because our consciousness perceives it as a more distant object.

ILLUSION OF A. EINSTEIN AND M. MONROE
If you look at the picture from close distance, you see the brilliant physicist A. Einstein.

Now try to move a few meters away, and... miracle, in the picture there is M. Monroe. Here everything seems to have gone off without an optical illusion. But how?! No one painted on the mustache, eyes, or hair. It’s just that from afar, vision does not perceive some small details, and puts more emphasis on large details.

The optical effect, which gives the viewer a false impression of the location of the seat, is due to the original design of the chair, invented by the French studio Ibride.

Peripheral vision turns beautiful faces into monsters.

Which direction does the wheel spin?

Stare without blinking at the middle of the image for 20 seconds, and then move your gaze to someone’s face or just a wall.

ILLUSION OF WALL SIDE WITH WINDOW
On which side of the building is the window located? On the left, or maybe on the right?

Once again our vision has been deceived. How did this become possible? Very simple: the upper part of the window is depicted as a window located with right side buildings (we look as if from below), and Bottom part– from the left (we are looking from above). And the middle is perceived by vision as consciousness deems necessary. That's the whole deception.

Illusion of bars

Take a look at these bars. Depending on which end you are looking at, the two pieces of wood will either be next to each other, or one of them will be lying on top of the other.
Cube and two identical cups

Optical illusion created by Chris Westall. There is a cup on the table, next to which there is a cube with a small cup. However, upon closer examination, we can see that in fact the cube is drawn, and the cups are exactly the same size. A similar effect is noticeable only at a certain angle.

Illusion "Cafe Wall"

Take a close look at the image. At first glance, all the lines seem to be curved, but in fact they are parallel. The illusion was discovered by R. Gregory at the Wall Cafe in Bristol. This is where its name came from.

Illusion of the Leaning Tower of Pisa

Above you see two pictures of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. At first glance, the tower on the right appears to lean more than the tower on the left, but in fact both of these pictures are the same. The reason is that the visual system views the two images as part of a single scene. Therefore, it seems to us that both photographs are not symmetrical.

ILLUSION OF WAVY LINES
There is no doubt that the lines depicted are wavy.

Remember what the section is called - optical illusion. You're right, these are straight, parallel lines. And it's a twisting illusion.

Ship or arch?

This illusion is a real work of art. The painting was painted by Rob Gonsalves, a Canadian artist, representative of the genre of magical realism. Depending on where you look, you can see either the arch of a long bridge or the sail of a ship.

ILLUSION - GRAFFITI “LADDER”
Now you can relax and not think that there will be another optical illusion. Let's admire the artist's imagination.

This graffiti was made by a miracle artist in the subway to the surprise of all passers-by.

BEZOLDI EFFECT
Look at the picture and say in which part the red lines are brighter and more contrasting. On the right isn't it?

In fact, the red lines in the picture are no different from each other. They are absolutely identical, again an optical illusion. This is the Bezoldi effect, when we perceive the tonality of a color differently depending on its proximity to other colors.

COLOR CHANGE ILLUSION
Does the color of the horizontal gray line change in the rectangle?

The horizontal line in the picture does not change throughout and remains the same gray. I can't believe it, right? This is an optical illusion. To make sure of this, cover the rectangle surrounding it with a sheet of paper.

THE ILLUSION OF A SHINING SUN
This great photo made by the American space agency NASA. It shows two sunspots pointing directly at the Earth.

Something else is much more interesting. If you look around the edge of the Sun, you will see how it shrinks. This is truly GREAT - no deception, a good illusion!

ZOLNER'S ILLUSION
Do you see that the herringbone lines in the picture are parallel?

I don't see it either. But they are parallel - check with a ruler. My vision was also deceived. This is the famous classic Zollner illusion, which has been around since the 19th century. Because of the “needles” on the lines, it seems to us that they are not parallel.

ILLUSION-JESUS ​​CHRIST
Look at the picture for 30 seconds (it may take more), then move your gaze to a light, flat surface, such as a wall.

Before your eyes you saw the image of Jesus Christ, the image is similar to the famous Shroud of Turin. Why does this effect occur? In the human eye there are cells called cones and rods. Cones are responsible for transmitting a color image to the human brain under good illumination, and rods help a person see in the dark and are responsible for transmitting low-definition black-and-white images. When you look at a black and white image of Jesus, the sticks get tired due to long and intense work. When you look away from the image, these “tired” cells cannot cope and cannot convey new information into the brain. Therefore, the image remains before the eyes and disappears when the sticks “come to their senses.”

ILLUSION. THREE SQUARE
Sit closer and look at the picture. Do you see that the sides of all three squares are curved?

I also see curved lines, despite the fact that the sides of all three squares are perfectly straight. When you move some distance away from the monitor, everything falls into place - the square looks perfect. This is because the background causes our brain to perceive lines as curves. This is an optical illusion. When the background merges and we don’t see it clearly, the square appears even.

ILLUSION. BLACK FIGURES
What do you see in the picture?

This is a classic illusion. Taking a quick glance, we see some strange figures. But after looking a little longer we begin to distinguish the word LIFT. Our consciousness is accustomed to seeing black letters on a white background, and continues to perceive this word as well. It is very unexpected for our brain to read white letters on a black background. In addition, most people first look at the center of the picture, and this makes the task even more difficult for the brain, because it is used to reading a word from left to right.

ILLUSION. ILLUSION OF OUCHI
Look at the center of the picture and you will see a “dancing” ball.

This is an iconic optical illusion invented in 1973 by Japanese artist Ouchi and named after him. There are several illusions in this picture. First, the ball appears to move slightly from side to side. Our brain cannot understand that this is a flat image and perceives it as three-dimensional. Another deception of the Ouchi illusion is the impression that we are looking through a round keyhole at a wall. Finally, all the rectangles in the picture are the same size, and they are arranged strictly in rows without apparent displacement.

Our perception reflects the world not always correct. Sometimes it is prone to deception. Deception of perception also includes complex mental disorders that involve distortion of the mechanisms of perception. Illusions and hallucinations involve the revival of images stored in memory, which are supplemented by imagination.

Illusions

Disorders in which existing real objects are perceived as completely different objects are called.

Illusions must be distinguished from errors of perception of healthy people, whose problems are caused by insufficient information about objects. For example, at dusk, some objects are perceived as others. The reason for this is the lack of visibility of the object, while the imagination independently fills in the missing details. As a result, the brain receives an image of an object that differs from reality.

Illusions often accompany mental disorders, having at the same time a fantastic character and arising even in cases where there are no obstacles to learning information.

Kinds

1. Affectogenic illusions- a deception of perception that appears under the influence of extreme anxiety and fear. When delusions occur, people tend to endow their surroundings with special features that cause anxiety. For example, in the conversation of random people the name of the patient may be heard.
2. Pareidolic illusions- fantastic images complex nature, arising violently when considering real things and objects. Pareidolia is a complex mental disorder that precedes the appearance of hallucinations. Usually this phenomenon is observed in the initial period of clouding of consciousness (for example, during delirium tremens or fever).

The desire of healthy people to fantasize must be distinguished from illusions. A healthy psyche always distinguishes real objects from imaginary ones and is able to promptly distinguish the flow of ideas.

Perception disorders in which objects and phenomena are detected where they are not in reality are called hallucinations.

A distinctive feature of hallucinations from illusions is that the former arise almost “on empty space", and at x there is a distortion of real objects. Hallucinations indicate a deep mental disorder and cannot be observed in mentally healthy people in their normal state. Typically, hallucinations occur in people with mental illness or in an altered state (for example, in a state of hypnosis).

Types of hallucinations

Various bases are used to classify hallucinations.

• According to the sense organs, hallucinations are:

- visual;

- auditory;

- tactile;

- olfactory;

- taste;

- hallucinations of general feeling.

The last type of hallucination seems to come from within, that is, the patient feels himself somewhere or someone, or maybe he feels something inside himself. The combination of sensations is difficult to attribute to one specific sense, for this reason hallucinations of this type are called the general type.

• In relation to the phases of sleep, hallucinations are:

- hypnagogic - occurring when falling asleep;

- hypnopompic - appearing upon awakening.

These hallucinations accompany mental disorders, but can also occur in healthy people due to overwork.

• Functional (reflex) hallucinations can occur when exposed to a specific stimulus. An example of these hallucinations could be:

- excess noise under the shower;

- parallel speech when turning on the TV, etc.

If you remove the stimulus, the hallucinations will disappear.

- elementary hallucinations appear in the form of short signals: knocking, rustling, clicking, crackling, lightning, flash, dot, etc.;

- simple hallucinations are associated with one specific analyzer and are distinguished by a clear structure and objectivity. An example would be a voice delivering clear speech;

Knowledge of the surrounding world and oneself begins with the perception by our senses of everything that surrounds a person and is himself. We look out the window of our house at the yellowing leaves. And instantly an image appears in the mind, and then the judgment that it is autumn. We see our unshaven face in the mirror, and the thought immediately appears that we need to get ourselves in order.

Perception- this is the sum of sensations + representation. Perception is the mental process of reflecting objects as a whole and forming a holistic image. Perception ends with recognition.
Feeling- this is a reflection of individual properties of objects in the surrounding world when exposed to the senses (cold, wet, hard, etc.).
Performance is a mental image of an object based on memories.

Sensory impairment

Quantitative changes in sensations:
anesthesia(lack of sensitivity);
hypoesthesia(decreased sensitivity);
hypersthesia(increased sensitivity).

Qualitative changes in sensations:
paresthesia(distortion of sensitivity);
senestopathy(complex disorders).

Hypersthesia occurs in asthenic syndrome, anxiety, delirium, and in pregnant women (to smells).
Hypoesthesia and anesthesia occur in depression, states of switched off consciousness, catatonic syndrome, hysterical (conversion) disorders, deep hypnosis, and a state of strong affect.

Senestopathies

Senestopathies- complex perception disorders characterized by:
1. Painful sensations inside the body.
2. Of a painful nature.
3. Difficult to describe: spasm, pressure, heat, burning, cold, bursting, pulsation, peeling, tearing, distension, stretching, twisting, tightening, friction, trembling, etc.
4. With migration throughout the body or of uncertain localization.
5. Seeing therapists, low cure rate.

“It’s like a bubble is bursting in my head,” “my intestines feel like they’re being twisted,” “my stomach feels like it’s being scratched by a kitten.”

Senestopathies occur in depression, neurotic disorders, schizophrenia, and organic diseases of the brain.

Illusions

Illusions- this is a distorted perception in which real phenomena or objects are perceived by a person in a changed, erroneous form.
“The coat on the hanger looks like a scary tramp.”

Illusions vary depending on the senses: visual, auditory (including verbal), olfactory, gustatory, tactile, general sense hallucinations (visceral and muscular).

Illusions differ in the mechanism of formation:
Physiological illusions arise in all people due to the peculiarities of the activity of the senses and perception. For example, illusionists “saw” a girl in half, a spoon in water appears to be broken, etc.
Illusions of inattention occur due to lack of attention or in conditions that impede perception (noise, lack of lighting, etc.). For example, instead of one word, another word that is similar in sound is heard (for example, at a party when loud music is playing nearby).
Affective illusions (affectogenic) arise against the background of affect (pronounced emotional reaction) fear, anxiety. An anxious and suspicious person walking at a late time in an unfamiliar place hears the steps of a pursuer behind him, sees people lurking in the shadows of trees, etc.
Pareidolic illusions — visual illusions bizarre and fantastic content that arise when perceiving complex configurations of lines and patterns on various surfaces.

“Kovrin stopped in amazement. On the horizon, like a whirlwind or tornado, a tall black pillar rose from the ground to the sky. His contours were unclear, but at the very first moment one could understand that he did not stand still, but was moving with terrible speed, moving exactly here, right at Kovrin... A monk in black clothes, with a gray head and black eyebrows crossed at chest arms, rushed past...” A.P. Chekhov, story “The Black Monk”.

Illusions of inattention and affectogenic illusions may be normal.
Pareidolic illusions occur in delirious states, organic psychoses, drug addiction, and poisoning with psychomimetics.

Hallucinations

Hallucinations- perception without an object, the perception of something that actually does not exist.

There are many classifications of hallucinations
A. By degree of difficulty:
. Elementary - the simplest phenomena (flashes of light, clicks, knocking, “calls”, etc.)
. Simple - occur only in one of the analyzers (for example, only the imaginary smell of lavender is felt)
. Complex (complex) - arise in several analyzers at once (for example, the patient sees the “devil”, hears his words, feels his touch)
. Scene-like - the entire environment changes, for example, the patient seems to be in a completely different place. Indicates the development of clouding of consciousness.

B. By analyzers:
. Visual
elementary - photopsia (visual images devoid of a specific form in the form of spots, flashes, “sparks”, contours, glare)
macro- and microptic - hallucinatory images of small or large size;
. Auditory
elementary - acoasms (calls, unclear noises, clicks, knocking);
in the form of speech - verbal:
mono- and polyvocal - one or more voices, respectively;
by content: condemning, threatening, praising, commenting, imperative.
. Visceral- feeling of presence in own body some objects, animals, worms, etc.
. Tactile- perception of any objects on the surface of the body (on the skin or mucous membranes, inside them or under them).
. Flavoring- the appearance of a taste (usually unpleasant) in oral cavity without any real stimulus, food intake.
. Olfactory- the appearance of a smell without a real stimulus.

V. Po special conditions emergence
In some cases, hallucinations only occur under certain conditions.
. Hypnagogic- when falling asleep, hypnopompic - when waking up. States of transition from sleep to wakefulness and vice versa facilitate the occurrence of hallucinations in conditions that predispose to their development (on initial stages alcoholic delirium, against the background of emotional stress).
. Functional (reflex)- arise against the background of another stimulus, but unlike illusions they do not replace it and do not mix with it (hears a stereotypical repetition of one curse against the background of the noise of the refrigerator, the noise of the refrigerator is perceived separately, but when the refrigerator becomes silent, the curses also disappear).
. For sensory deprivation(hallucinations of Charles Bonnet - occur in those who have lost their sight).
. Psychogenic (caused)- after a traumatic situation, during hypnosis or during tests for readiness for hallucinations (symptoms of a blank page, a switched off phone, etc.).

D. According to the characteristics of perception

There are true hallucinations and pseudohallucinations.

	True hallucinations	Pseudohallucinations
	Extraprojection - the image is perceived through the senses. Vivid, like real images. Associated with the real situation. The patient interacts with hallucinations, catches them, strokes them, waves them away, runs away, etc. The patient struggles with hallucinations - he can turn away and close his ears.	Intraprojection - the image is in subjective space (and the patient understands this). They do not have the character of a real object. Not related to the real situation. The patient's behavior may be normal. It is impossible to turn away and close your ears.
Visual	The patient, while in the department of a multidisciplinary hospital, became restless in the evening, looking for something under the bed, in the corner of the ward, claims that rats are running on the floor, waves away something, says that these are spiders coming down from the ceiling, tries to press them on floor, on the next empty bed he sees “some kind of dwarf”, turns to him, asks him to help catch the rats.	The patient sees the witch with all her attributes (three guns, a bottle of dynamite, a copper pipe) only internally, but so clearly and distinctly that he can tell with all the details what position she was in at that moment, what her facial expression was. He sees the witch from a very long distance and, moreover, through the walls. The patient knows that the witch is not physical, and sees her with his “spirit”.
Auditory	A 57-year-old patient, after a week-long binge, began to hear a sound in her room similar to the crying of a child, searched for the source of this sound for a long time, and decided that a real child had somehow gotten into her room and now he was crying from hunger. Since, in the patient’s opinion, the crying was coming from the sofa, she completely dismantled her sofa (down to the individual springs).	The patient says that “inside her head” she hears “voices” of people she doesn’t know. “Voices” comment on her actions, sometimes scolding her. She believes that these “voices” come from the Kremlin, where they monitor her life and “help” her with the help of special devices. He says that he hears voices “not with his ears, but with his brain,” because when he plugs his ears, “the voices do not decrease,” and he cannot localize the source of sound in the surrounding space.
Tactile	In the hospital waiting room, the patient suddenly begins to roll on the floor, squeals, tears her shirt on her chest, and tries to shake something off. She says that there is a cat on her chest, she has grabbed her claws into the skin, asks the doctors to remove it
Visceral	The patient claimed that a snake lived in her stomach, a very natural ordinary snake. The patient was given an imitation surgical intervention and showed her a snake allegedly removed from her stomach. The calm lasted a couple of days. Then the patient began to say that the snake was removed, but the baby snakes remained, and she felt them.	The patient claims that he feels like the sorcerer who has “possessed” him is in him “somewhere in the abdomen, near the spine,” he twists his insides, pulls them to the spine, etc.
Olfactory	The patient thinks that his hands stink of feces, although the people around him do not smell any odors. The patient constantly washes his hands and wears gloves.	In one patient with a schizophrenia-like picture of psychosis that arose against the background of a tumor of the frontal lobe, the moment of truth was olfactory hallucinations in which she felt the “smell of a male orgasm.” When asked what this smell was, the patient, no matter how hard she tried, could not specify it.

Hallucinations occur in psychosis (alcoholism, schizophrenia, epilepsy, organic brain lesions, drug addiction) , the use of psychotomimetics and cataracts (Charles-Bonnet hallucinations).

Hallucinosis(hallucinatory syndrome) is an influx of abundant hallucinations against the background of clear consciousness, lasting from 1-2 weeks to several years. Hallucinosis may be accompanied affective disorders(anxiety, fear), as well as delusional ideas.

Psychosensory disorders

Psychosensory disorders- this is a distorted perception of phenomena and objects.
Psychosensory disorders differ from illusions in the adequacy of perception: the patient knows that he sees a chair, albeit with crooked legs. In an illusion, one thing is mistaken for another (instead of a chair there is a huge spider).
Metamorphopsia, macropsia, micropsia.
Autometamorphopsia is a change and distortion of various parts of one’s own body.

A patient suffering from cerebral vasculitis saw cars the size of ladybug, and the houses standing on the same street are the size of a matchbox. At the same time, she clearly understood that this could not be, but she experienced a feeling of strong surprise and anxiety at these phenomena.

Psychosensory disorders occur with temporal lobe epilepsy, encephalitis, encephalopathy, intoxication, and eye diseases.

Depersonalization-derealization syndrome

Depersonalization- violation of the reality of self-perception.
Happens:
1. Vital - the patient’s very sense of life disappears.
2. Autopsychic - alienation of the mental functions of one’s self (thoughts are not mine, I hear my speech as if from the outside, my past is as if not mine, I don’t understand whether I want to sleep or not, painful mental anesthesia also belongs to the range of these disorders) .
3. Somatopsychic - alienation or disappearance of one’s body or its parts. But at the same time, there are no changes in the proportions or sizes of the body, patients simply do not feel it or parts of it - “it seems like I don’t have legs,” patients cannot understand whether they are hungry or not, whether there is a urge to urinate or not, etc. .
Derealization- violation of the reality of perception of the environment.
"The world is like a picture."
Related derealization phenomena are considered symptoms such as already seen (déjà vu), already experienced (déjà vu), already experienced, already heard (déjà entendu), never seen.
Depersonalization-derealization syndrome occurs in psychoses (for example, schizophrenia) and in healthy people, with lack of sleep, long-term stress, fatigue, overstrain.

The most famous of the deceptions of perception are hallucinations, a word that everyone has probably heard. We will also talk about hallucinations, but at the very end. In general, strictly speaking, it is more correct to call this a pathology of sensory cognition (sphere of perception), which has the following stages - sensation, perception, representation. Sensation is the primary recognition.

The eye receives a wave of a certain length and the brain reacts by seeing red. An air wave with a frequency of some Hz is applied to the ear, and the brain converts this into boom-boom-boom sounds.

Perception (in the narrow sense of the word) is the next stage. Object recognition. We feel the shape - a circle and a stick, we see color - red, we put it all together and realize that this is a lollipop. Or. We hear rattling sounds, we hear a bleating voice, we see a fat guy - these are all sensations. When everything adds up to Boris Grebenshchikov singing on the TV screen, it’s perception.

Representation is traces former perceptions, these are images of everything in the world that are stored in our heads and which we can call up at will. For example, we can imagine a lollipop without even seeing a lollipop. Still, they clearly represent Chupa Chups, right? Or would it be better if I explained it using the example of a sausage?
Why am I saying all this? Moreover, all this, well, absolutely everything, can break. And I will prove it now.

I. Pathology of sensations. May be
1) changing sensitivity thresholds, which can be

a) decreased - then this is mental hyperesthesia. Quiet sounds hurt your ears, the taste seems too harsh, ordinary lighting seems unbearably bright. And this usually irritates a person and causes discomfort.

b) increased - mental hypoesthesia - this is when, on the contrary, the world becomes faded, the colors fade, sounds come boomingly, people’s voices lose individual characteristics, food - taste, aromatic substances - smell, pain sensitivity decreases. A person lives as if through a layer of enveloping cotton wool. And so on until

c) mental anesthesia, when some analyzer is completely turned off. Or rather, the analyzer (eye, ear, etc.) is completely healthy, but the brain refuses to perceive information from it. For example - mental amblyopia (blindness), - a person with healthy eyes does not see anything. Mental anosmia - insensitivity to smells, mental angesia - loss of the sense of taste, mental deafness, painful anesthesia, etc. Sensations are also classified as pathologies

2) Senesthopathy. This is a breakthrough of internal reception into consciousness. There are a bunch of receptors scattered throughout the body, from which a fairly dense flow of data constantly flows. This is not determined by consciousness, since these data are of a service-technical nature for the brain, we do not need to know about them, unless, of course, something extraordinary happens, and then we feel, for example, that our stomach hurts. So, with senestopathies, a breakthrough of interoreception into consciousness occurs, as if assembly codes appeared on your screen instead of a beautiful browser window. At the same time, a person feels vague, migrating, diffuse, unpleasant, extremely painful sensations. It pulls, burns, tickles, pulsates, shimmers, drills, tosses and turns inside. Don't understand what. Unpleasant sensations.

II. Pathology of perception. It happens that an object is recognized correctly, but its properties are distorted, then this is a psychosensory disorder. But it happens that the object itself is recognized incorrectly - then it is an illusion.
1) Psychosensory disorder. This is when we generally see the world as it is, only crookedly. Happens

a) metamorphopsia - distorted perception of one or more objects of the external world and

b) violation of the “body scheme” - when the perception of one’s own physical self is distorted. For example, objects seem enlarged or reduced (macropsia and micropsia), broken and twisted (dimegalopia), the passage of time slows down or accelerates (bradychrony and tachychrony), the sense of reality changes ( derealization - when the world around us seems to be drawn, made, unreal).

2) Illusions. A person sees another instead of one object. Or hears. There are

a) Affective illusions arise in a state of stress and excitement - anxiety, fear, depression, exaltation, ecstasy, etc. A child in a dark corridor, instead of a fur coat on a hanger, sees a babayka, a barmaley, or whatever modern children are afraid of. Instead of a watermelon, a man sees a severed human head on the table.

b) Verbal illusions. Instead of neutral speech, a person hears threats, insults and comments addressed to himself - for example, a radio announcer declares that you are a complete crazy, yes, yes, you, there is no need to turn your head, I am addressing you, people like you should be isolated from society.

c) Pareidolia - visual illusions in which the play of chiaroscuro, spots, frosty patterns, tangles of tree branches, etc. are replaced by various fantastic images.

The main point of any illusion is that there is always some object in the real world that is perceived incorrectly. And this is the difference between an illusion and a hallucination, in which nothing corresponds to the visions. In general, all of the above happens, of course, with a wide variety of mental illnesses, usually at the very beginning. But also in completely healthy people at crisis moments in their lives, with particularly strong anxiety, or during alcohol/drug intoxication. I think all of you have experienced something like this at least once in your life. For example, when we were children, because children nervous system less stable, and let’s say they have illusions normally (as in the example with the fur coat). And now! The last but not the least! We are moving into the realm of complete madness.

III. Pathologies of presentation. Hallucinations. This is an internal image, painfully intensified to such an extent that it begins to be perceived by a person as real. Nothing in the real world corresponds to hallucinations. We see/hear/etc. something that doesn't exist. U normal people There are no hallucinations, this is a formal sign of psychosis. A person has no criticism of hallucinations; he is independently unable to distinguish visions from reality. Hallucinations occur with incomplete objectivity (the simplest) and with completed objectivity.

With unfinished objectivity. Visual - photopsia (sparks, circles, flies flying, threads hanging, ripples in the air). Auditory - acoasms - inarticulate incoherent sounds (creaks, rustles, steps behind the wall) and phonemes - screams, sobs, interjections, individual syllables not connected into words.

All the rest - with complete objectivity - visual, verbal, tactile, visceral. A person can talk to a non-existent interlocutor, eat a non-existent spoon of non-existent soup and feel a non-existent heaviness in the stomach after that, whatever.

It is very important to distinguish between true and false hallucinations. There is such an internal joke - “how does a true hallucination differ from a pseudohallucination? “Pseudohallucinations are not really there.” With true hallucinations, we simply see a spoon, but there is no spoon. We hear people addressing us in an empty room, we turn around, and there is a gargoyle sitting on the windowsill. But at least this happens in the real world that we perceive. With pseudo-hallucinations, the hallucinatory image is severed from any connection with reality and exists exclusively within a person. Voices sounding inside the head are heard by a person, but not with the ears, but “placed directly inside the head.” It is quite difficult for a healthy person to imagine this. One schizophrenic friend described these experiences as “clearly hearing voices.” A person sees, but not with his eyes, but inside his head. It is precisely that he does not imagine, does not fantasize, but clearly sees. Usually, in order to explain how they perceive it, patients invent non-existent analyzers (the inner sense of me, the inner hearing, the inner eye).

Pseudo-hallucination says that decay has begun mental processes that the very principles of the psyche are violated. That is, it usually tells us that everything is bad. Pseudohallucinations occur in schizophrenics. Hallucinations generally occur in the structure of absolutely all psychotic forms.

http://uo.anadyr.org/forums/showthread.php?t=309

- illusions- distorted perception of what actually exists external environment object. There is no critical assessment. There are illusions:

Paraidalic – illusion with imagination (look at the clouds – we see animals)

Physiological – due to chemistry in the body.

Affective – against the background of affect and fear. For example, many people, especially children, perceive objects in rooms at night as scary monsters.

Verbal – distorted speech perception

Hallucination– deceptions of perception, when a person perceives objects outside of direct connection with environmental stimuli.

Hallucinations are normal and do not indicate pathology:

Hypnogic - when falling asleep

Hypnopompic - upon awakening

Suggested – after a hypnosis session

There are also:

Elementary - a sound or a separate image is perceived, but it is not differentiated. For example, some sound or spot appeared. They can also occur in healthy people.

Simple - only one analyzer is involved. Someone's specific voice, for example.

Complex – two or more analyzers are involved (I’m not just talking with a head, but I’m also seeing and feeling)

Peudo-hallucinations:

Kondinsky and Clerambault are both psychiatrists, Kondinsky suffered from schizophrenia and both of them committed suicide. Pseudo-hallucinations- observed in schizophrenia, and just hallucinations with organic brain lesions. But this is not a strict rule.

Pseudo-hallucinations– are of the nature of subjective perception, perceived as something anomalous. If they were true, then we would not be able to feel them (Someone is signaling something to me a thousand kilometers away). They have the character of an imposition - as if someone put someone else’s thoughts into your head. Someone moves my tongue and expresses some thoughts. “I look at the world through mental glasses.”

True hallucinations are of the nature of objective activity. Projected into external space. If these hallucinations existed in reality, then we would be able to perceive them using our senses. (If there really was a devil sitting, we would see him)

Hypersthesia – sharpening of perception. It happens in neurotic patients. On the background emotional states It happens.

Hyposthesia– weakening of perception. In neurotic patients. Stocking-glove anesthesia - we touch the arms and legs with a needle - they don’t feel, as soon as they cross the barrier, they immediately feel. Hysterical blindness and deafness.

Depersonalization– altered perception of one’s own personality. They may also have healthy person, for example, in adolescence. “I know I’m beautiful, but I didn’t feel like that.” I feel very big.

Derealization is an inadequate perception of the world. I see everything around me as too big.

Deja vu is a syndrome of what has already been seen.

Ja-me-vu – syndrome of the unseen.

From Zeigarnik:

From the theoretical positions of A. N. Leontyev, A. V. Zaporozhets, L. A. Venger, V. P. Zinchenko, Yu. B. Gippenreiter it follows that the development of perception is determined by the tasks that arise before a person in his life. For research in general psychology characterized by an approach to perception as an activity that includes the main specifics human psyche- activity and partiality.

S. L. Rubinstein points out that human perception is always generalized and depends on the orientation of the individual. Consequently, perception should be considered as a perceptual activity characterized by generalization and motivation. In recent years, a number of foreign authors have also tried to show that the product of the perception process depends on emotional and personal characteristics person.

Therefore, it should be expected that perception may be impaired in different characteristics activity - in violation of generalization, personal conditionality. These disturbances manifest themselves in difficulty in recognition, distortions of the perceived material, deceptions of the senses, false recognitions, and restructuring of the motivational side of perceptual activity. Let's look at some of them.

Agnosia

Agnosia is the difficulty of recognizing objects and sounds. Many works are devoted to the problem of agnosia, especially visual agnosia. Starting with A. Petzl, visual agnosia was divided into: a) agnosia of objects, the so-called Lissauerian “mental objective agnosia”, when patients did not recognize objects and their images. This group also includes Wolpert’s “simultaneous agnosia” (patients recognized individual objects and their images, but did not recognize the image of the situation); b) agnosia for colors and fonts; c) spatial agnosia.

We will dwell only on those cases of agnosia that occurred during mental illness. In a number of patients (with organic brain lesions of various origins), the phenomena of agnosia manifested themselves in the fact that the patients identified first one or another sign of the perceived object, but did not carry out synthesis; Thus, one patient describes the image of a nail as something round, saying: “there’s a cap at the top, a stick at the bottom, I don’t know what it is”; another patient describes the key as “a ring and a rod.” At the same time, the patients described exactly the configuration of the object, they could even copy it exactly, but this did not facilitate their recognition. Similar facts indicating the impossibility of synthesis were described by E. P. Kok in a study of patients with lesions of the parieto-occipital systems, as well as by E. D. Khomskaya and E. G. Sorkina.

First of all, the question arose that the perception of structure in patients was impaired, as was the case in patient Sh. (described by K. Goldstein), who, as is known, did not perceive the shape of objects: he could not distinguish “with the eye” a triangle from a circle and recognized figures only after he “outlined them motorically,” for example, with head movements.

In other patients, agnosia was of a different nature. Without recognizing objects, they recognized their shape, configuration, even when the latter was presented tachistoscopically, they could describe them. So, for example, with a tachistoscopic presentation of a garden watering can, a patient says: “a barrel-shaped body, something round, in the middle it extends like a stick on one side,” while another patient, with a tachistoscopic presentation of a comb, says: “some kind of horizontal line, small , thin sticks." Sometimes patients could draw an object without recognizing it.

As an illustration, we present the data of a pathopsychological study and the medical history of patient V., which was described by me together with G.V. Birenbaum in 1935.

Patient V., 43 years old, bibliographer. Diagnosis: epidemic encephalitis (Dr. E. G. Kaganovskaya).

She fell ill in 1932. Severe drowsiness appeared, which lasted about a week and was replaced by insomnia. There was drooling, left-sided leg paresis and pain in the outer part of the left shoulder, and fever. There were illusions and hallucinations. There were “mice running” on the wall around the fan, figures were jumping on the floor, “dancing faces” were spinning. With these phenomena, the patient was admitted to Botkin hospital. A few days later, short-term disturbances of consciousness appeared; the patient could not find her room or bed. In 1933 she was transferred to psychiatric clinic VIEM. By the time of our research mental status the patient has changed. The patient is clearly conscious and correctly oriented to her surroundings. Somewhat amicable. Quiet, slightly modulating voice. He lies around a lot, complaining of fatigue and headaches. It is difficult and does not immediately give anamnestic information, while dwelling on details that are not related to the essence of the issues. He reads little, “he lacks,” the patient notes, “a vivid imagination.” Outwardly good-natured, emotional. This state, however, is quickly replaced by irritability and malice, reaching the point of affective explosiveness. Together with emotional lability There is, in general, a poor and rather uniform affective life with a very narrow circle of attachments, an indifferent attitude towards people, towards work, towards social life, towards literature, which was previously very beloved. Against this background of general emotional monotony, there is an interest in recovery.

Experimental psychological research does not reveal any gross changes in the patient’s mental activity. The patient correctly assimilated the instructions, conveyed well the content and subtext of the book she read, and understood the conventional meaning of proverbs and metaphors. There was only some passivity and lack of interest in the experimental situation.

At the same time, a pathopsychological study revealed gross impairments in object recognition. The patient often did not recognize (40%) the images presented to her. So, she calls the drawn mushroom “haystack”, the matches “crystals”. The patient does not grasp the plot of the picture immediately, but only after long fixations on individual details. The process of perception has the character of guessing: “So that it could be a comb? What is it sitting on - an armchair, a chair? So that it could be a stove, a trough?” When the famous painting “Suicide Woman” is shown, the patient says: “What kind of woman is this, what is she thinking about? What is she sitting on? On the bed? What are these shadows?”

Even with the correct name, the patient always had doubts and uncertainty; she looks for supporting points in the drawing in order to confirm with them the correctness of her conclusion. So, the patient recognized the image of the book, but immediately the usual doubts for the patient set in: “Is it a book, is it some kind of square. No, the square has no protrusions and something is written here. Yes, this is a book.” With this pronounced violation the patient recognized pictures perfectly well geometric shapes, completed unfinished drawings according to structural laws. Moreover, without recognizing the object in the drawing, she perfectly described its shape. For example, without recognizing the design of a drum and a cabinet, she described their shape extremely accurately and even copied them well.

During the research process, it was revealed that the patient always recognized real objects well and had difficulty recognizing papier-mâché models (for example, the patient did not recognize an airplane, had difficulty recognizing a dog, furniture).

Thus, a certain gradation of her disorders was created. The patient recognized objects well, recognized models worse, and drawings of objects even worse. She recognized especially poorly those images that were schematically drawn in the form of outlines. Therefore, the assumption arose that the reason for the difficulty of recognition is obviously caused by the generality and formalization that is inherent in the drawing. For testing, the following series of experiments was carried out: the patient was presented with images of the same objects in different designs: a) in the form of a dotted outline; b) in the form of a black silhouette, c) in the form of an exact photographic image, sometimes against the background of specific details, for example, a pen and inkwell were drawn next to a paperweight. Data experimental research confirmed our assumption. The patient did not recognize dotted images at all, somewhat better, but still very poorly, she recognized silhouette images and better - concrete ones.

Thus, the experiment revealed the peculiar gradation indicated above. As A. R. Luria points out, “the process of visual analysis turned into a series of speech attempts to decipher the meaning of perceived features and synthesize them into a visual image.” The patient could not perceive the drawing “at first glance”; the perception process acquired the character of an extensive, de-automated action. This is evidenced by the following fact: having recognized the photographic image, the patient was unable to transfer this recognition to the silhouette image. After the patient recognized scissors in the colored image, the experimenter asked: “Did I show you this object before?” The patient thinks and says with surprise: “No, I see him for the first time; oh, do you think those sticks that you showed me? No, these are not scissors (the patient draws them from memory). What could it be? I don’t I know". Even when she manages to transfer, she remains uncertain. Recognizing the painted hat, she says to the outline one: “Is this also a hat?” To the experimenter’s affirmative answer, she asks: “What does this line have to do with it?” (points to the shadow). When this drawing is again presented to her in a subsequent experiment, she remarks: “You then said that it was a hat.”

The data presented showed that perception is disrupted in its specific human characteristics as a process that has the function of generalization and convention; Therefore, it seemed legitimate to us to talk about a violation of the generalizing function of perception. This is also evidenced by the ways in which this defect could be compensated. Thus, if the experimenter asked to indicate a certain object: “indicate where the hat is or where the scissors are,” then the patients recognized it correctly. Thus, the inclusion of the presented object in a certain circle of meaning helped recognition. The name of the approximate circle of objects to which a given object belongs (“show furniture, vegetables”) helped less. Therefore, it should be expected that such agnostic disorders should be especially clearly identified in dementia patients.

Pseudoagnosia in dementia

Study visual perception in patients in whom clinical and experimental psychological data revealed dementia of the organic type, the above-mentioned features were revealed: the patients did not recognize silhouette and dotted patterns. To this was added another feature: their perception was diffuse, undifferentiated. Perception disturbances are revealed especially clearly in this group when exposed to situational pictures. In addition to the fact that dementia patients do not grasp the plot, they also exhibit a number of other characteristic phenomena. Not understanding the meaning of the plot, they often describe individual objects without seeing their plot connection. Individual parts of the picture merge, mix with the background, images of objects are not recognizable. The object of recognition is determined by the part of the drawing on which the patient fixes his attention. Thus, the patient calls a mushroom a tomato if the head of the mushroom appears as part of it, or sees a cucumber in the mushroom if he fixes attention on its stem. Therefore, when presenting a drawing to the patient, it is often indifferent whether they show him part or the whole.

In some patients, agnosia extended to the structure and shape of the image. G.V. Birenbaum described in 1948 patient K., who, against the background organic dementia disorders of visual gnosis appeared in the form of disturbances in the perception of form. She (called such a violation “pseudoagnosia.” When showing a triangle, he says: “It’s somehow a wedge, but I can’t call it, I see a wedge in three places, a wedge is a three-wedge.” When exposing a quadrangle, the patient says: “It’s hard for me to say (circles finger) - straight, straight, straight and straight." When exposing an unfinished circle, he sees first of all the flaw: "there is some kind of failure here," at the same time he perceives the symmetry of the form. For example, when showing a cross, not being able to name the figures, the patient declares : “No matter where you want to look, it lies correctly.” Often the patient perceives the shape of the object, but immediately its structure quickly disintegrates.

This phenomenon can be interpreted as a violation of “optical attention”. For example, when examining a picture of a peasant standing with a thoughtful look by a cart whose wheel has bounced off, the patient says: “Here is the wheel, and this is a man standing,” pointing to the horse. “And this is some kind of bird.” Experimenter: “It’s a horse.” Sick: “It doesn’t look like a horse.” Here there is a clear violation of not only semantic, but also structural components. Having recognized the cart and the wheel, he not only does not draw the corresponding conclusion that there is a cart with a horse, but the sharp protruding ears of the horse give the patient the impression that it is a bird. When trying to understand the plot of a picture, patients often incorrectly describe its content due to incorrect recognition of details and structural decay. This disorder resembles the phenomenon described by A. Pick as “senile agnosia”, or as a disorder of “simultaneous perception”. It is expressed in the fact that the subject, while describing individual objects, is unable to grasp the general meaning of the picture.

With colored plot drawings, dementia patients easily succumb to the diffuse impression of the bright coloring of individual parts of the picture and can also describe them according to the above type. Perception, freed from the organizing role of thinking, becomes diffuse, structural decay easily occurs, unimportant elements of the picture become the center of attention and lead to incorrect recognition.

Due to the loss and disorder of semantic components, orthoscopic perceptions suffered sharply in dementia patients. It was enough to show these patients an object or drawing upside down and they would no longer recognize it. Examples: a drawing of a cat (from the children's lotto series) is presented upside down. The patient says: “Some kind of monument.” Exposition of the same drawing in an upright position: “This is the monument! cat". The drawing - a “shoe”, from the same lotto series, is given upside down. Patient: “Some kind of urn.” In direct exposure, the patient immediately recognizes the shoe. With a slight removal of objects, the constancy of their size was not maintained in dementia patients.

Thus, impaired perception in dementia confirms the leading role of the factor of meaningfulness and generalization in any act of perceptual activity.