What is biochemistry and how is it done. What does a biochemical blood test show and what are the norms for adults? Indications for the delivery of a biochemical blood test

Biochemical analysis - research a wide range enzymes, organic and minerals. This analysis of the metabolism in the human body: carbohydrate, mineral, fat and protein. Changes in metabolism show whether there is a pathology and in which particular organ.

This analysis is done if the doctor suspects a hidden disease. The result of the analysis of the pathology in the body is actually initial stage development, and the specialist can navigate the choice of drugs.

With the help of this analysis, leukemia can be detected on early stage before the symptoms began to appear. In this case, you can start taking the necessary drugs and stop the pathological process of the disease.

Sampling process and analysis indicator values

For analysis, blood is taken from a vein, about five to ten milliliters. It is placed in a special test tube. The analysis is carried out on an empty stomach of the patient, for more complete veracity. If there is no health risk, it is recommended not to take pre-blood medications.

To interpret the results of the analysis, the most informative indicators are used:
- the level of glucose and sugar - an increased indicator characterizes the development of diabetes mellitus in a person, its sharp decrease poses a threat to life;
- cholesterol - its increased content states the fact of the presence of atherosclerosis of the vessels and the risk of cardiovascular diseases;
- transaminases - enzymes that detect diseases such as myocardial infarction, liver damage (hepatitis), or the presence of any injury;
- bilirubin - its high levels indicate liver damage, massive destruction of red blood cells and impaired bile outflow;
- urea and creatine - their excess indicates a weakening of the excretion function of the kidneys and liver;
- total protein- its indicators change when the body serious disease or some negative process;
- amylase - is an enzyme of the pancreas, an increase in its level in the blood indicates inflammation of the gland - pancreatitis.

In addition to the above, a biochemical blood test determines the content of potassium, iron, phosphorus and chlorine in the body. Only the attending physician can decipher the results of the analysis, who will prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Biochemistry (from the Greek "bios" - "life", biological or physiological) is a science that studies the chemical processes inside the cell that affect the vital activity of the whole organism or its certain organs. The goal of the science of biochemistry is to know chemical elements, composition and process of metabolism, methods of its regulation in the cell. According to other definitions, biochemistry is the science of the chemical structure of cells and organisms of living beings.

To understand what biochemistry is for, let's imagine the sciences in the form of an elementary table.

As you can see, the basis for all sciences is anatomy, histology and cytology, which study all living things. On their basis, biochemistry, physiology and pathophysiology are built, where they learn the functioning of organisms and the chemical processes inside them. Without these sciences, the others that are represented in the upper sector will not be able to exist.

There is another approach according to which sciences are divided into 3 types (levels):

• Those that study the cellular, molecular and tissue level of life (the sciences of anatomy, histology, biochemistry, biophysics);
• Study pathological processes and diseases (pathophysiology, pathological anatomy);
• Diagnose the body's external response to diseases (clinical sciences such as medicine and surgery).

This is how we found out what place biochemistry, or, as it is also called, medical biochemistry, occupies among the sciences. After all, any abnormal behavior of the body, the process of its metabolism will affect the chemical structure of the cells and will manifest itself during the LHC.

What are tests for? What does a biochemical blood test show?

Blood biochemistry is a diagnostic method in the laboratory that shows diseases in various areas of medicine (for example, therapy, gynecology, endocrinology) and helps to determine the functioning of internal organs and the quality of protein, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as the adequacy of microelements in the body.

BAC, or a biochemical blood test, is an analysis that provides the widest information regarding a variety of diseases. Based on its results, you can find out the functional state of the body and each organ in a particular case, because any disease that attacks a person will somehow manifest itself in the results of the LHC.

What is included in biochemistry?

Not very convenient, and not necessary, to carry out biochemical research absolutely all indicators, and besides, the more there are, the more blood you need, and also the more they will cost you. Therefore, there are standard and complex tanks. The standard one is prescribed in most cases, but the doctor prescribes an extended one with additional indicators if he needs to find out additional nuances depending on the symptoms of the disease and the goals of the analysis.

Basic indicators.

1. Total protein in the blood (TP, Total Protein).
2. Bilirubin.
3. Glucose, lipase.
4. ALT (Alanine aminotransferase, ALT) and AST (Aspartate aminotransferase, AST).
5. Creatinine
6. Urea.
7. Electrolytes (Potassium, K/Calcium, Ca/Sodium, Na/Chlorine, Cl/Magnesium, Mg).
8. total cholesterol.

The Expanded Profile includes any of these additional metrics (as well as others that are very specific and narrowly targeted and not included in this list).

Biochemical general therapeutic standard: adult norms

Deciphering biochemistry

The decoding of the data that was described above is carried out according to certain values ​​\u200b\u200band norms.

1. total protein is the amount of total protein in the human body. Exceeding the norm indicates various inflammations in the body (problems of the liver, kidneys, genitourinary system, burn disease or cancer), with dehydration (dehydration) during vomiting, sweating in especially large sizes, intestinal obstruction or multiple myeloma, deficiency - on an imbalance in the nutritious diet, prolonged starvation, bowel disease, liver disease, or in violation of synthesis as a result of hereditary diseases.
2. 
   Albumen It is the protein fraction in the blood with a high concentration. It binds water, and its low amount leads to the development of edema - water does not stay in the blood and enters the tissues. Usually, if the protein decreases, then the amount of albumin decreases.
3. Analysis of bilirubin in plasma, general(direct and indirect) is the diagnosis of the pigment that is formed after the breakdown of hemoglobin (it is toxic for humans). Hyperbilirubinemia (exceeding the level of bilirubin) is called jaundice, and clinical suprahepatic jaundice (including in newborns), hepatocellular and subhepatic jaundice is distinguished. It indicates anemia, extensive hemorrhages subsequently hemolytic anemia, hepatitis, liver destruction, oncology and other diseases. It is frightening with liver pathology, but it can also increase in a person who has suffered blows and injuries.
4. Glucose. Its level determines carbohydrate metabolism, that is, energy in the body, and how the pancreas works. If there is a lot of glucose, it may be diabetes, physical exercise or affected by the use of hormonal drugs, if little - hyperfunction of the pancreas, diseases of the endocrine system.
5. Lipase - it is a fat-breaking enzyme that plays an important role in metabolism. Its increase indicates pancreatic disease.
6. ALT- "liver marker", it monitors the pathological processes of the liver. Increased rate informs about problems in the work of the heart, liver or hepatitis (viral).
7. AST- "cardiac marker", it shows the quality of the work of the heart. Exceeding the norm indicates a violation of the heart and hepatitis.
8. Creatinine- provides information about the functioning of the kidneys. Increased if a person has acute or chronic kidney disease or there is destruction of muscle tissue, endocrine disorders. High in people who eat a lot of meat products. And therefore, creatinine is lowered in vegetarians, as well as in pregnant women, but it will not affect the diagnosis very much.
9. Urea analysis- This is a study of the products of protein metabolism, the work of the liver and kidneys. An overestimation of the indicator occurs when there is a violation in the work of the kidneys, when they cannot cope with the removal of fluid from the body, and a decrease is typical for pregnant women, with diet and disorders associated with liver function.
10. ggt in biochemical analysis informs about the exchange of amino acids in the body. Its high rate is visible in alcoholism, and also if the blood is affected by toxins or dysfunction of the liver and biliary tract is assumed. Low - if any chronic diseases liver.
11. Ldg in the study characterizes the course of energy processes of glycolysis and lactate. High rate points to negative impact on the liver, lungs, heart, pancreas or kidneys (diseases such as pneumonia, heart attack, pancreatitis, etc.). Low lactate dehydrogenase, as well as low creatinine, will not affect the diagnosis. If LDH is elevated, the causes in women may be the following: increased physical activity and pregnancy. In newborns, this figure is also slightly overestimated.
12. electrolyte balance indicates the normal process of metabolism in the cell and out of the cell back, including the process of the heart. Nutritional disorders are often the main cause of electrolyte imbalance, but it can also be vomiting, diarrhea, hormonal disbalance or kidney failure.
13. cholesterol(cholesterol) total - increases if a person has obesity, atherosclerosis, liver dysfunction, thyroid gland, and decreases when a person goes on a low-fat diet, with septicemia or another infection.
14. Amylase- an enzyme found in saliva and pancreas. A high level will show if there are cholecystitis, signs of diabetes mellitus, peritonitis, parotitis and pancreatitis. It will also increase if you use alcoholic beverages or drugs - glucocorticoids, it is also typical for pregnant women during toxicosis.

There are a lot of biochemistry indicators, both basic and additional, and complex biochemistry is also carried out, which includes both basic and additional indicators at the discretion of the doctor.

Pass biochemistry on an empty stomach or not: how to prepare for analysis?

A blood test for Bx is a responsible process, and you need to prepare for it in advance and with all seriousness.

These measures are necessary so that the analysis is more accurate and no additional factors affect it. Otherwise, you will have to retake the tests, since the slightest changes in conditions will significantly affect the metabolic process.

Where do they take and how to donate blood

Donating blood for biochemistry occurs by taking blood with a syringe from a vein on the elbow bend, sometimes from a vein on the forearm or hand. On average, 5-10 ml of blood is enough to make the main indicators. If you need a detailed analysis of biochemistry, then the volume of blood is also taken more.

The norm of biochemistry indicators on specialized equipment from different manufacturers may differ slightly from the average limits. Express method means getting results within one day.

The blood sampling procedure is almost painless: you sit down, the procedural nurse prepares a syringe, puts a tourniquet on your arm, treats the injection site with an antiseptic and takes a blood sample.

The resulting sample is placed in a test tube and sent to the laboratory for diagnosis. The laboratory doctor places a plasma sample in a special device that is designed to determine biochemistry parameters with high accuracy. He also carries out the processing and storage of blood, determines the dosage and procedure for conducting biochemistry, diagnoses the results obtained, depending on the indicators requested by the attending physician, and draws up a form of biochemistry results and laboratory and chemical analysis.

Laboratory and chemical analysis is transmitted during the day to the attending physician, who makes a diagnosis and prescribes treatment.

The LHC with its many different indicators makes it possible to see a vast clinical picture specific person and specific disease.

BIOCHEMISTRY (biological chemistry)- a biological science that studies the chemical nature of substances that make up living organisms, their transformations and the relationship of these transformations with the activity of organs and tissues. The totality of processes that are inextricably linked with vital activity is commonly called metabolism (see Metabolism and Energy).

The study of the composition of living organisms has long attracted the attention of scientists, since the number of substances that make up living organisms, in addition to water, mineral elements, lipids, carbohydrates, etc., includes a number of the most complex organic compounds: proteins and their complexes with a number of other biopolymers primarily with nucleic acids.

The possibility of spontaneous association (under certain conditions) of a large number of protein molecules with the formation of complex supramolecular structures, for example, the protein coat of the phage tail, some cellular organelles, etc., was established. This made it possible to introduce the concept of self-assembling systems. This kind of research creates the preconditions for solving the problem of the formation of the most complex supramolecular structures, which have the characteristics and properties of living matter, from high-molecular organic compounds that once abiogenically arose in nature.

Modern baptism as an independent science took shape at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until that time, the questions now considered by B. were studied from different angles by organic chemistry and physiology. Organic chemistry (see), which studies carbon compounds in general, deals, in particular, with the analysis and synthesis of those chemical. compounds found in living tissue. Physiology (see), along with the study of vital functions, also studies chem. processes underlying life. Thus, biochemistry is a product of the development of these two sciences and can be divided into two parts: static (or structural) and dynamic. Static biochemistry deals with the study of natural organic substances and their analysis and synthesis, while dynamic biochemistry studies the totality of the chemical transformations of certain organic compounds in the course of life. Dynamic B., thus, is closer to physiology and medicine than to organic chemistry. This explains why B. was originally called physiological (or medical) chemistry.

Like any rapidly developing science, biochemistry soon after its inception began to be divided into a number of separate disciplines: the biochemistry of humans and animals, the biochemistry of plants, the biochemistry of microbes (microorganisms), and a number of others, because, despite the biochemical unity of all living things, in animals and plant organisms there are fundamental differences in the nature of metabolism. First of all, this concerns the processes of assimilation. Plants, unlike animal organisms, have the ability to use such simple chemical substances, as carbon dioxide, water, salts of nitric and nitrous acids, ammonia, etc. At the same time, the process of building plant cells requires for its implementation an influx of energy from the outside in the form of sunlight. The use of this energy is primarily carried out by green autotrophic organisms (plants, protozoa - Euglena, a number of bacteria), which in turn themselves serve as food for everyone else, the so-called. heterotrophic organisms (including humans) inhabiting the biosphere (see). Thus, the separation of plant biochemistry into a special discipline is justified both from the theoretical and practical sides.

Development of a number of industries and agriculture (processing of raw materials of plant and animal origin, preparation food products, the manufacture of vitamin and hormonal preparations, antibiotics, etc.) led to the allocation to a special section of technical B.

When studying the chemistry of various microorganisms, researchers encountered a number of specific substances and processes of great scientific and practical interest (antibiotics of microbial and fungal origin, different kinds fermentations of industrial importance, the formation of protein substances from carbohydrates and the simplest nitrogenous compounds, etc.). All these questions are considered in the biochemistry of microorganisms.

In the 20th century emerged as a special discipline of the biochemistry of viruses (see Viruses).

Needs clinical medicine emergence of clinical biochemistry was caused (see).

Of the other sections of biology, which are usually regarded as fairly separate disciplines that have their own tasks and specific methods research should be called: evolutionary and comparative biochemistry (biochemical processes and chemical composition of organisms at various stages of their evolutionary development), enzymology (the structure and function of enzymes, the kinetics of enzymatic reactions), biochemistry of vitamins, hormones, radiation biochemistry, quantum biochemistry - comparison of properties, functions and pathways of transformation of biologically important compounds with their electronic characteristics obtained using quantum chemical calculations (see Quantum biochemistry).

Especially promising was the study of the structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids at the molecular level. This circle of questions is studied by the sciences which have arisen on B.'s joints with biology and genetics, - molecular biology (see) and biochemical genetics (see).

Historical outline of the development of research on the chemistry of living matter. The study of living matter from the chemical side began from the moment when it became necessary to study the constituent parts of living organisms and the chemical processes taking place in them in connection with the demands of practical medicine and agriculture. The studies of medieval alchemists led to the accumulation of a large amount of factual material on natural organic compounds. In the 16th - 17th centuries. the views of alchemists were developed in the works of iatrochemists (see Iatrochemistry), who believed that the vital activity of the human body can be correctly understood only from the standpoint of chemistry. Thus, one of the most prominent representatives of iatrochemistry, the German physician and naturalist F. Paracelsus, put forward a progressive position on the need for a close connection between chemistry and medicine, while emphasizing that the task of alchemy is not to make gold and silver, but to create what is strength and virtue. medicine. Iatrochemists introduced honey. practice preparations of mercury, antimony, iron and other elements. Later, I. Van Helmont suggested that there are special principles in the "juices" of a living body - the so-called. "enzymes" involved in a variety of chemical. transformations.

In the 17th -18th centuries. the theory of phlogiston became widespread (see Chemistry). The refutation of this fundamentally erroneous theory is connected with the works of M. V. Lomonosov and A. Lavoisier, who discovered and approved the law of conservation of matter (mass) in science. Lavoisier made the most important contribution to the development not only of chemistry, but also to the study of biol, processes. Developing Mayow's earlier observations (J. Mayow, 1643-1679), he showed that during respiration, as in the combustion of organic substances, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released. At the same time, he, together with Laplace, showed that the process biological oxidation is also a source of animal warmth. This discovery stimulated research on the energy of metabolism, as a result of which, already at the beginning of the 19th century. the amount of heat released during the combustion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins was determined.

major events in the second half of the 18th century. began research R. Reaumur and Spallanzani (L. Spallanzani) on the physiology of digestion. These researchers first studied the action gastric juice animals and birds on various types of food (ch. arr. meat) and laid the foundation for the study of enzymes of digestive juices. The emergence of enzymology (the doctrine of enzymes), however, is usually associated with the names of K. S. Kirchhoff (1814), as well as Payen and Persot (A. Payen, J. Persoz, 1833), who first studied the effect of the enzyme amylase on starch in vitro.

Important role played the work of Priestley (J. Priestley) and especially Ingenhaus (J. Ingenhouse), who discovered the phenomenon of photosynthesis (late 18th century).

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. other fundamental research in the field of comparative biochemistry was also carried out; at the same time, the existence of the circulation of substances in nature was established.

From the very beginning, the successes of static biochemistry were inextricably linked with the development of organic chemistry.

The impetus for the development of the chemistry of natural compounds was the research of the Swedish chemist K. Scheele (1742 - 1786). He isolated and described the properties of a number of natural compounds—lactic, tartaric, citric, oxalic, malic acids, glycerin, and amyl alcohol, and others. methods of quantitative elemental analysis of organic compounds. Following this, attempts began to synthesize natural organic substances. The successes achieved - the synthesis in 1828 of urea by F. Weller, acetic acid by A. Kolbe (1844), fats by P. Berthelot (1850), carbohydrates by A. M. Butlerov (1861) - were of particular importance, because showed the possibility of in vitro synthesis of a number of organic substances that are part of animal tissues or are the end products of metabolism. Thus, the complete failure of the widely used in the 18-19 centuries was established. vitalistic ideas (see Vitalism). In the second half of the 18th - early 19th century. many other important studies were also carried out: uric acid was isolated from urinary stones (Bergman and Scheele), from bile - cholesterol [Konradi (J. Conradi)], from honey - glucose and fructose (T. Lovitz), from leaves green plants - the pigment chlorophyll [Pelletier and Cavent (J. Pelletier, J. Caventou)], creatine was discovered in the muscles [Chev-rel (M. E. Chevreul)]. It was shown the existence of a special group of organic compounds - plant alkaloids (Serturner, Meister, etc.), which later found application in honey. practice. The first amino acids, glycine and leucine, were obtained from gelatin and bovine meat by hydrolysis [J. Proust], 1819; Brakonno (H. Braconnot), 1820].

In France, in the laboratory of C. Bernard, glycogen was discovered in the liver tissue (1857), the ways of its formation and the mechanisms regulating its breakdown were studied. In Germany, in the laboratories of E. Fischer, E. F. Goppe-Seyler, A. Kossel, E. Abdergalden and others, the structure and properties of proteins, as well as the products of their hydrolysis, including enzymatic, were studied.

In connection with the description of yeast cells (K. Cognard-Latour in France and T. Schwann in Germany, 1836-1838), they began to actively study the process of fermentation (Liebig, Pasteur, and others). Contrary to the opinion of Liebig, who considered the fermentation process as a purely chemical process that proceeds with the obligatory participation of oxygen, L. Pasteur established the possibility of the existence of anaerobiosis, that is, life in the absence of air, due to the energy of fermentation (a process that, in his opinion, is inextricably linked with vital activity cells, e.g. yeast cells). This issue was clarified by the experiments of M. M. Manasseina (1871), who showed the possibility of sugar fermentation by destroyed (rubbing with sand) yeast cells, and especially by the works of Buchner (1897) on the nature of fermentation. Buchner managed to obtain a cell-free juice from yeast cells, capable, like live yeast, of fermenting sugar to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The emergence and development of biological (physiological) chemistry

Accumulation a large number information regarding the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them, led to the need for systematization and generalizations in the field of B. The first work in this regard was the textbook by J. E. Simon, Handbuch der angewandten medizinischen Chemie (1842). Obviously, it was from that time that the term "biological (physiological) chemistry" was established in science.

Somewhat later (1846), Liebig's monograph Die Tierchemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie was published. In Russia, the first textbook of physiological chemistry was published by A. I. Khodnev, a professor at Kharkov University, in 1847. Periodical literature on biological (physiological) chemistry began to appear regularly from 1873 in Germany. This year Mali (L. R. Maly) published Jahres-Bericht uber die Fortschritte der Tierchemie. In 1877, the scientific journal Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie", later renamed "Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie. Later, biochemical journals began to be published in many countries of the world in English, French, Russian and other languages.

In the second half of the 19th century at the medical faculties of many Russian and foreign universities, special departments of medical, or physiological, chemistry were established. In Russia, the first department of medical chemistry was organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky in 1863 at Kazan University. In 1864, A. D. Bulyginsky founded the Department of Medical Chemistry at the medical f-those of Moscow University. Soon the departments of medical chemistry, later renamed the departments of physiological chemistry, appeared at the medical faculties of other universities. In 1892, the Department of Physiological Chemistry, organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky, began functioning at the Military Medical (Medical-Surgical) Academy in St. Petersburg. However, the reading of individual sections of the course of physiological chemistry was carried out there much earlier (1862-1874) at the Department of Chemistry (A.P. Borodin).

B.'s true heyday came in the 20th century. At the very beginning, the polypeptide theory of the structure of proteins was formulated and experimentally substantiated (E. Fischer, 1901-1902, and others). Later, a number of analytical methods, including micromethods that allow studying the amino acid composition of minimal amounts of protein (several milligrams); the method of chromatography (see), first developed by the Russian scientist M. S. Tsvet (1901 - 1910), methods of X-ray diffraction analysis (see), "labeled atoms" (isotope indication), cytospectrophotometry, electron microscopy (see) became widespread. . Preparative protein chemistry is making major strides, developing effective methods isolation and fractionation of proteins and enzymes and determination of their molecular weight [Cohen (S. Cohen), Tiselius (A. Tiselius), Svedberg (T. Swedberg)].

The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins (including enzymes) and polypeptides is deciphered. A number of important, possessing biological activity protein substances.

The greatest achievements in the development of this direction are associated with the names of L. Pauling and Corey (R. Corey) - structure polypeptide chains squirrel (1951); V. Vigno - structure and synthesis of oxytocin and vasopressin (1953); Sanger (F. Sanger) - the structure of insulin (1953); Stein (W. Stein) and S. Moore - deciphering the formula of ribonuclease, creating an automaton for determining the amino acid composition of protein hydrolysates; Perutz (M. F. Perutz), Kendrew (J. Kendrew) and Phillips (D. Phillips) - decoding using the methods of X-ray structural analysis of the structure and the creation of three-dimensional models of the molecules of myoglobin, hemoglobin, lysozyme and a number of other proteins (1960 and subsequent years) .

Of outstanding importance were the works of Sumner (J. Sumner), who first proved (1926) the protein nature of the urease enzyme; studies of Northrop (J. Northrop) and Kunitz (M. Kunitz) on the purification and production of crystalline preparations of enzymes - pepsin and others (1930); V. A. Engelhardt on the presence of ATP-ase activity in the contractile muscle protein myosin (1939 - 1942), etc. A large number of works are devoted to studying the mechanism of enzymatic catalysis [Michaelis and Menten (L. Michaelis, M. L. Menten), 1913; R. Wilstetter, Theorell, Koshland (H. Theorell, D. E. Koshland), A. E. Braunstein and M. M. Shemyakin, 1963; Straub (F. V. Straub), etc.], complex multienzyme complexes (S. E. Severin, F. Linen, etc.), the role of cell structure in the implementation of enzymatic reactions, the nature of active and allosteric centers in enzyme molecules (see. Enzymes), the primary structure of enzymes [B. Shorm, Anfinsen (S. V. Anfinsen), V. N. Orekhovich and others], regulation of the activity of a number of enzymes by hormones (V. S. Ilyin and others). The properties of "enzyme families" - isoenzymes are being studied [Markert, Kaplan, Wroblewski (S. Markert, N. Kaplan, F. Wroblewski), 1960-1961].

An important step in the development of B. was the decoding of the mechanism of protein biosynthesis with the participation of ribosomes, informational and transport forms of ribonucleic acids [Zh. Brachet, F. Jacob, Monod (J. Monod), 1953-1961; A. N. Belozersky (1959); A. S. Spirin, A. A. Baev (1957 and subsequent years)].

Brilliant works of Chargaff (E. Chargaff), Zh. Davidson, especially J. Watson, F. Crick and Wilkins (M. Wilkins), come to the end with elucidation of structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (see). The double-stranded structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of hereditary information are being established. The synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) is carried out by A. Kornberg (1960 - 1968), Weiss (S. Weiss), S. Ochoa. One of the central problems of modern B. is being solved (1962 and subsequent years) - the RNA-amino acid code is being deciphered [Crick, M. Nirenberg, F. Crick, J. H. Matthaei, and others].

For the first time, one of the genes and the phx174 phage are synthesized. The concept of molecular diseases associated with certain defects in the DNA structure of the chromosomal apparatus of the cell is introduced (see Molecular Genetics). A theory of regulation of the work of cistrons (see), responsible for the synthesis of various proteins and enzymes (Jacob, Monod), is being developed, the study of the mechanism of protein (nitrogen) metabolism continues.

Previously, the classical studies of IP Pavlov and his school revealed the basic physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the digestive glands. Especially fruitful was the commonwealth of the laboratories of A. Ya. Danilevsky and M. V. Nentsky with the laboratory of IP Pavlov, a cut led to the clarification of the place of formation of urea (in the liver). F. Hopkins and his collaborators. (England) established the significance of previously unknown food components, developing on this basis a new concept of diseases caused by nutritional deficiencies. The existence of interchangeable and irreplaceable amino acids is established, protein norms in nutrition are being developed. The intermediate exchange of amino acids is deciphered - deamination, transamination (A. E. Braunshtein and M. G. Kritsman), decarboxylation, their mutual transformations and features of metabolism (S. R. Mardashev and others). The mechanisms of the biosynthesis of urea (G. Krebs), creatine and creatinine are being elucidated, a group of extractive nitrogenous substances of muscles - the dipeptides carnosine, carnitine, anserine - is being discovered and subjected to detailed study [V. S. Gulevich, D. Ackermann,

S. E. Severin and others]. detailed study the peculiarities of the process of nitrogen metabolism in plants are subjected (D. N. Pryanishnikov, V. L. Kretovich, and others). A special place was occupied by the study of disorders of nitrogen metabolism in animals and humans with protein deficiency (S. Ya. Kaplansky, Yu. M. Gefter, and others). The synthesis of purine and pyrimidine bases is carried out, the mechanisms of formation of urinary to-you are clarified, the decay products of hemoglobin (pigments of bile, feces and urine) are studied in detail, the pathways of heme formation and the mechanism of occurrence of acute and congenital forms of porphyria and porphyrinuria are deciphered.

Outstanding progress has been made in deciphering the structure of the most important carbohydrates [A. A. Colley, Tollens, Killiani, Haworth (B.C. Tollens, H. Killiani, W. Haworth) and others] and the mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism. The transformation of carbohydrates in the digestive tract under the influence of digestive enzymes and intestinal microorganisms (in particular, in herbivores) has been clarified in detail; clarifies and expands the work on the role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism and maintaining the concentration of sugar in the blood at a certain level, begun in the middle of the last century by C. Bernard and E. Pfluger, deciphers the mechanisms of glycogen synthesis (with the participation of UDP-glucose) and its breakdown [K . Corey, Leloir (L. F. Leloir) and others]; schemes for the intermediate exchange of carbohydrates are created (glycolytic, pentose cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle); the nature of individual intermediate products of metabolism is clarified [Ya. O. Parnas, G. Embden, O. Meyerhof, L. A. Ivanov, S. P. Kostychev, A. Harden, Krebs, F. Lipmann, S. Cohen, V. A . Engelhardt and others]. The biochemical mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism disorders (diabetes, galactosemia, glycogenosis, etc.) associated with hereditary defects in the corresponding enzyme systems are being elucidated.

Outstanding successes have been achieved in deciphering the structure of lipids: phospholipids, cerebrosides, gangliosides, sterols and sterides [Tirfelder, A. Vindaus, A. Butenandt, Ruzicka, Reichstein (H. Thierfelder, A. Ruzicka, T. Reichstein) and others].

The works of M. V. Nentsky, F. Knoop (1904) and H. Dakin created the theory of β-oxidation fatty acids. Development contemporary ideas about the pathways of oxidation (with the participation of coenzyme A) and synthesis (with the participation of malonyl-CoA) of fatty acids and complex lipids associated with the names of Leloir, Linen, Lipmann, Green (D. E. Green), Kennedy (E. Kennedy), etc.

Significant progress has been made in studying the mechanism of biological oxidation. One of the first theories of biological oxidation (the so-called peroxide theory) was proposed by A. N. Bach (see Biological Oxidation). Later, a theory appeared, according to a cut, various substrates of cellular respiration undergo oxidation and their carbon ultimately turns into CO2 due to the oxygen of not absorbed air, but the oxygen of water (V. I. Palladii, 1908). Later in development modern theory tissue respiration, a major contribution was made by the works of G. Wieland, Thunberg (T. Tunberg), L. S. Stern, O. Warburg, Euler, D. Keilin (N. Euler) and others. Warburg is credited with the discovery of one of the coenzymes of dehydrogenases - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), flavin enzyme and its prosthetic group, respiratory iron-containing enzyme, later called cytochrome oxidase. He also proposed a spectrophotometric method for determining the concentration of NAD and NADP (Warburg test), which then formed the basis for quantitative methods for determining a number of biochemical components of blood and tissues. Keilin established the role of iron-containing pigments (cytochromes) in the respiratory catalyst chain.

Lipmann's discovery of coenzyme A was of great importance, which made it possible to develop a universal cycle of aerobic oxidation. active form acetate - acetyl-CoA (citric acid cycle Krebs).

V. A. Engelhardt, as well as Lipmann, introduced the concept of “energy-rich” phosphorus compounds, in particular ATP (see Adenosine phosphoric acids), in the macroergic bonds of which a significant part of the energy released during tissue respiration is accumulated (see Biological oxidation).

The possibility of the phosphorylation coupled with breath (see) in a chain of the respiratory catalysts which are built in in membranes of mitochondrions, was shown by V. A. Belitser and Kalkar (H. Kalckar). A large number of works are devoted to studying the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation [Cheyne (V. Chance), Mitchell (P. Mitchell), V. P. Skulachev and others].

20th century was marked by the deciphering of the chemical structure of all vitamins known in the past, the time of vitamins (see), international units of vitamins are introduced, the needs for vitamins of humans and animals are established, and a vitamin industry is created.

No less significant progress has been made in the field of chemistry and biochemistry of hormones (see); the structure was studied and steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex were synthesized (Windaus, Reichstein, Butenandt, Ruzicka); established the structure of thyroid hormones - thyroxine, diiodothyronine [E. Kendall (E. S. Kendall), 1919; Harington (S. Harington), 1926]; adrenal medulla - adrenaline, norepinephrine [Takamine (J. Takamine), 1907]. The synthesis of insulin was carried out, the structure of somatotropic), adrenocorticotropic, melanocyte-stimulating hormones was established; isolated and studied other hormones of protein nature; schemes for the interconversion and exchange of steroid hormones have been developed (N. A. Yudaev and others). The first data on the mechanism of action of hormones (ACTH, vasopressin, etc.) on metabolism have been obtained. The mechanism of regulation of functions is deciphered endocrine glands on the basis of feedback.

Significant data have been obtained in the study of the chemical composition and metabolism of a number of important organs and tissues (functional biochemistry). Features are set in chemical composition nervous tissue. There is a new direction in B. - neurochemistry. A number of complex lipids that make up the bulk of brain tissue have been identified - phosphatides, sphingomyelins, plasmalogens, cerebrosides, cholesterols, gangliosides [Tudikhum, Welsh (J. Thudichum, H. Waelsh), A. B. Palladium, E. M. K reps, etc.] . The main regularities of the exchange of nerve cells are clarified, the role of biologically active amines - adrenaline, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, γ-amino-butyric acid, etc. is deciphered. medical practice various psychopharmacological substances that open up new possibilities in the treatment of various nervous diseases. Chemical transmitters of nervous excitation (mediators) are studied in detail, they are widely used, especially in agriculture, various cholinesterase inhibitors for insect pest control, etc.

Significant progress has been made in the study of muscular activity. The contractile proteins of muscles are studied in detail (see Muscle tissue). The most important role of ATP in muscle contraction has been established [V. A. Engelhardt and M. N. Lyubimova, Szent-Gyorgyi, Straub (A. Szent-Gyorgyi, F. B. Straub)], in the movement of cell organelles, penetration of phages into bacteria [Weber, Hoffmann-Berling (N. Weber, H. Hoffmann-Berling), I. I. Ivanov, V. Ya. Aleksandrov, N. I. Arronet, B. F. Poglazov and others]; the mechanism of muscle contraction at the molecular level is studied in detail [Huxley, Hanson (H. Huxley, J. Hanson), G. M. Frank, Tonomura (J. Tonomura), etc.], the role of imidazole and its derivatives in muscle contraction (G E. Severin); theories of two-phase muscular activity are being developed [Hasselbach (W. Hasselbach)], etc.

Important results were obtained in the study of the composition and properties of blood: respiratory function blood is normal and with a number of pathological conditions; the mechanism of oxygen transfer from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs has been elucidated [I. M. Sechenov, J. Haldane, D. van Slyke, J. Barcroft, L. Henderson, S. E. Severin, G. E. Vladimirov, E. M. Krepe, G. V. Derviz]; clarified and expanded ideas about the mechanism of blood coagulation; the presence in the blood plasma of a number of new factors has been established, in the congenital absence of which, there are observed in the blood various forms hemophilia. The fractional composition of blood plasma proteins (albumin, alpha, beta and gamma globulins, lipoproteins, etc.) has been studied. A number of new plasma proteins (properdin, C-reactive protein, haptoglobin, cryoglobulin, transferrin, ceruloplasmin, interferon, etc.) have been discovered. The system of kinins - biologically active polypeptides of blood plasma (bradykinin, kallidin), which play an important role in the regulation of local and general blood flow and are involved in the development mechanism inflammatory processes, shock and others pathological processes and states.

The development of a number of special methods research: isotopic indication, differential centrifugation (separation of subcellular organelles), spectrophotometry (see), mass spectrometry (see), electron paramagnetic resonance (see), etc.

Some prospects for the development of biochemistry

B.'s successes largely determine not only the current level of medicine, but also its possible further progress. One of the main problems of B. and molecular biology (see) is the correction of defects in the genetic apparatus (see Gene therapy). Radical therapy of hereditary diseases associated with mutational changes in certain genes (i.e., DNA sections) responsible for the synthesis of certain proteins and enzymes is, in principle, possible only by transplantation of similar genes synthesized in vitro or isolated from cells (e.g. bacteria) "healthy" genes. A very tempting task is also to master the mechanism of regulation of the reading of genetic information encoded in DNA and to decipher the mechanism of cell differentiation in ontogenesis at the molecular level. The problem of therapy for a number of viral diseases, especially leukemia, will probably not be solved until the mechanism of interaction of viruses (in particular, oncogenic ones) with the infected cell becomes completely clear. In this direction, intensive work is being carried out in many laboratories around the world. Elucidation of the picture of life at the molecular level will allow not only to fully understand the processes occurring in the body (biocatalysis, the mechanism for using the energy of ATP and GTP in the performance of mechanical functions, the transmission of nervous excitation, the active transport of substances through membranes, the phenomenon of immunity, etc.), but also will open up new opportunities in the creation of effective medicines, in the fight against premature aging, the development of cardiovascular diseases (atherosclerosis), and life extension.

Biochemical centers in the USSR. In the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of Biochemistry. A. N. Bach, Institute of Molecular Biology, Institute of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry. I. M. Sechenova, Institute of Protein, Institute of Physiology and Biochemistry of Plants, Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, branch of the Institute of Biochemistry of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of Biochemistry of the Arm. SSR, etc. The USSR Academy of Medical Sciences has the Institute of Biological and Medicinal Chemistry, the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Chemistry of Hormones, the Institute of Nutrition, and the Department of Biochemistry of the Institute of Experimental Medicine. There are also a number of biochemical laboratories at other institutes and scientific institutions Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, academies of the Union republics, in universities (departments of biochemistry of Moscow, Leningrad and other universities, a number of medical institutes, Military Medical Academy etc.), veterinary, agricultural and other scientific institutions. In the USSR there are about 8 thousand members of the All-Union Biochemical Society (UBO), a cut is included in the European Federation of Biochemists (FEBS) and in the International Biochemical Union (IUB).

Radiation biochemistry

Radiation biochemistry studies the changes in metabolism that occur in the body when it is exposed to ionizing radiation. Irradiation causes ionization and excitation of cell molecules, their reactions with emerging in aquatic environment free radicals (see) and peroxides that leads to disturbance of structures of biosubstrates of cellular organelles, balance and mutual communications of intracellular biochemical processes. In particular, these shifts, in combination with post-radiation effects from the damaged c. n. with. and humoral factors give rise to secondary metabolic disorders that determine the course of radiation sickness. An important role in the development of radiation sickness is played by the acceleration of the breakdown of nucleoproteins, DNA and simple proteins, inhibition of their biosynthesis, disruption of the coordinated action of enzymes, as well as oxidative phosphorylation (see) in mitochondria, a decrease in the amount of ATP in tissues and increased lipid oxidation with the formation of peroxides (see Radiation sickness , Radiobiology , Medical radiology).

Bibliography: Afonsky S. I. Biochemistry of animals, M., 1970; Biochemistry, ed. H. N. Yakovleva. Moscow, 1969. ZbarekY B. I., Ivanov I. I. and M and r-d and sh e in S. R. Biological chemistry, JI., 1972; Kretovich V. JI. Fundamentals of plant biochemistry, M., 1971; JI e n and N d-e r A. Biochemistry, trans. from English, M., 1974; Makeev I. A., Gulevich V. S. and Broude JI. M. Course of biological chemistry, JI., 1947; Mahler G.R. and KordesYu. G. Fundamentals of biological chemistry, trans. from English, M., 1970; Ferdman D. JI. Biochemistry, M., 1966; Filippovich Yu. B. Fundamentals of biochemistry, M., 1969; III tr and at F. B. Biochemistry, the lane with English. from Hungarian., Budapest, 1965; R a r o r t S. M. Medizinische Bioc-hemie, B., 1962.

Periodicals- Biochemistry, M., since 1936; Questions of medical chemistry, M., since 1955; Journal of evolutionary biochemistry and physiology, M., since 1965; Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Series biological sciences, M., since 1958; Molecular biology, M., since 1967; Ukrainian Byuchemist Journal, Kshv, since 1946 (1926-1937 - Naukov1 Notes of the Ukrainian Byuchemist Sheti-tutu, 1938-1941 - Byuchemist Journal); Advances in biological chemistry, JI., since 1924; Successes of modern biology, M., since 1932; Annual Review of Biochemistry, Stanford, since 1932; Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, N. Y., since 1951 (1942-1950 - Archives of Biochemistry); Biochemical Journal, L., since 1906; Biochemische Zeitschrift, V., since 1906; Biochemistry, Washington, since 1964; Biochimica et biophysica acta, N. Y. - Amsterdam, since 1947; Bulletin de la Soci6t<5 de chimie biologique, P., с 1914; Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, L., с 1960; Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, В., с 1877; Journal of Biochemistry, Tokyo, с 1922; Journal of Biological Chemistry, Baltimore, с 1905; Journal of Molecular Biology, L.-N.Y., с 1960; Journal of Neurochemistry, L., с 1956; Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, N. Y., с 1903; См. также в ст. Клиническая биохимия, Физиология, Химия.

B. radiation- Kuzin A. M. Radiation biochemistry, M., 1962; P about -mantsev E. F. and others river. Early radiation-biochemical reactions, M., 1966; Fedorova T. A., Tereshchenko O. Ya. and M and z at r and to V. K. Nucleic acids and proteins in the body with radiation injury, M., 1972; Cherkasova L. S. and others. Ionizing radiation and metabolism, Minsk, 1962, bibliogr.; Altman K. I., Gerber G. B. a. O k a d a S. Radiation biochemistry, v. 1-2, N.Y.-L., 1970.

I. I. Ivanov; T. A. Fedorova (happy).

And even many gave it up. It's just that when a doctor issues a bunch of directions for analysis, a person goes to donate blood, but he himself does not suspect what kind of analysis it is and what it is for. Let's figure out where blood is taken from for biochemistry, what kind of analysis it is, how it is given, and what can be seen from the results.

It is a science that studies the chemical composition of organisms and the processes that regulate their life. Medicine uses this science to study the state of the components and bodies that make up the chemical composition of the blood. This analysis is so touted - biochemistry, or a biochemical blood test.

This is one of the most common studies that is used to control metabolism and the condition of internal organs. This analysis is used in all branches of medicine: cardiology, medicine, gynecology, surgery and others.

To decipher the analysis, there are certain norms of parameters by which the specialist is guided by reading the results.

Deviation from the norm of one or another parameter to a smaller or larger side may indicate any diseases.

Where do they take blood for biochemistry and preparation for the procedure

Many factors influence the concentration of blood and its composition. Basically, it is fatigue, food, the amount of liquid consumed, etc. it is because of this that experts recommend taking after sleep - in the morning and on an empty stomach.

In this state, the quantity and quality of bodies in the blood are best seen. But this condition is relevant for a planned inspection. If the situation is critical, then in stationary conditions, blood is taken for analysis at any time of the day. This is due to the fact that the development of the disease is the most important factor, against the background of food or physical activity.Whole blood is needed for such a study so that plasma and serum can be analyzed. This blood is taken from a vein.

When diagnosing, a special procedure is carried out - centrifugation.

In this case, the blood in a test tube is placed in a special device and divided into dense elements and plasma.With the ability to decipher the results of the tests, you can identify many pathologies in the early stages and stop their development.

Before the scheduled delivery of a biochemical analysis, you need to follow a few rules so that the result is as accurate as possible:

1. in the morning before donating blood, do not eat, drink or exercise anything
2. the night before, you should not have dinner too late, it is forbidden to eat fatty, smoked, too salty and spicy foods
3. It is not recommended to eat sweets and drink tea and coffee with a lot of sugar
4. 2-3 days before the test for a biochemical study, it is better to stop drinking alcohol
5. it is forbidden to drink hormonal drugs, antibiotics or tranquilizers on the eve of blood donation - they can distort the chemical composition of the blood too much
6. 24 hours before the analysis, it is better to refuse thermal procedures - taking saunas, visiting baths

By following these rules, you can get more accurate indicators of bodies and substances in the blood. If the results show some deviation, then it is recommended to take biochemistry again to confirm the results. Retesting is recommended at the same laboratory and at the same time of day.

Main indicators of analysis and their significance

When the attending physician directs the patient to a biochemical blood test, he indicates which specific indicators he is interested in confirming or refuting the diagnosis. If the study is carried out with a preventive purpose, then the number of basic indicators is necessary:

Which is in the blood serum. It is measured in grams per litre. For each age category, the protein norm is different:

• Children from birth to 12 months - 40-73 g / l
• Children under 14 years old - 60-80 g / l
• Adults - 62-88 g / l

If the total protein is below normal, this indicates the development of hypoproteinemia, and an excessive amount of protein is hyperproteinemia.

is the most important indicator in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. A low level indicates a malfunction and. Glucose is measured in mmol/liter of blood. Normal indicators, depending on age, are as follows:

• children under 14 - 3.3-5.5
• adults under 60 years old - 3.8-5.8
• over 60 years old - 4.6-6.1

The most common cause of low glucose is an excessive amount of insulin (for diabetics). Also, during starvation, in violation of metabolism, in violation of the functions of the adrenal glands, hyperglycemia (an increase in the amount of glucose in the blood) may occur.

More information on how to correctly decipher a biochemical blood test can be found in the video:

- These are the most basic blood proteins, which make up to 65% of all proteins in the blood plasma. These proteins perform a transport function, connecting with hormones and acids and transferring them throughout the body. They also bind many toxic components and send them to the liver for filtration. The second important mission of albumins is to maintain the consistency of the blood through fluid exchange. Above the norm, albumins practically do not exist (and if they do, then in case of dehydration), but their decrease can signal the presence of an infection, pregnancy, and disorders, and other diseases.

Albumins, like all proteins, are measured in grams per liter. The rule should be:

• Children up to 4 days - 28-44 g / l
• Children under 5 years old - 38-50 g / l
• Children under 14 years old 38-54 g/l
• People under 65 years old - 36-51 g / l
• People over 65 years old - 35-49 g / l

- This is a yellow pigment formed during the breakdown of cytochromes and hemoglobin. The normal indicator of this pigment is 3.4-17.1 µmol / liter. Raise bilirubin is an indicator of pathologies, liver infections (hepatitis A, B, C) or impaired production, as a result of which (transport protein) decreases and anemia develops, against the background of a lack of oxygen.

is a blood lipid involved in the structure of cells. 80% of it is produced in the body, and the remaining 20 come from food. If, when analyzing cholesterol in the blood, 3.2-5.6 mmol / liter is the norm. High cholesterol can lead to many diseases. Its excess forms cholesterol plaques in the vessels, which disrupts blood circulation, blockages may occur, the vessels lose their elasticity, and as a result, a disease occurs - atherosclerosis.

Electrolytes:

• Chlorine is in the blood. This electrolyte is responsible for acid and water balance. In a normal state, evil should be at least 98 and not more than 107 mmol / liter of blood.
• Potassium is found inside cells and signals functionality. Its increase indicates pathologies of the genitourinary system (cystitis, inflammation, infection, etc.). The norm of potassium is 3.5-5.5, mmol / liter.
• (136-145 mmol / l) is contained in the extracellular fluid. Deviations from the norm in the amount of sodium indicate dehydration, disturbed blood pressure, and a violation in the functioning of nerve tissues.

Which is formed as a result of metabolism. That is, it is the final product that is excreted through the kidneys and. If the acid is above normal, this may be a signal of the formation of kidney stones and kidney pathologies. The indicator of uric acid depends on gender:

• Men - 210-420 µmol / liter
• Women - 150-350 µmol / liter

In the end, it is important to note that such a blood test is an integral part of the diagnosis of the body. According to the results of this analysis, the specialist can see the state of the internal organs. If one or the other parameter is rejected, the doctor will prescribe an additional study to confirm the suspicion of the development of the disease.