What about flat bones? How we are built: human skeleton with name of bones

06.11.2019 -

Name

Catalogs

Structure

Flat bones formed by two thin plates of a compact substance, between which is located a spongy substance containing bone marrow. The spongy substance of the skull bones is called diploe.

Ossification

Ossification of the flat bones of the skull is carried out on the basis of connective tissue (endesmal ossification). The ossification of the remaining flat bones is carried out on the basis of cartilaginous tissue (enchondral ossification).

Write a review about the article "Flat Bones"

Literature

Sapin M. R., Bryksina Z. G. - Human anatomy. Enlightenment, 1995 ISBN 5-09-004385-X



Cartilage

Cartilaginous growth

Cells

Types of cartilage tissue

Bones

Ossification

Cells

Types of bone tissue

Departments

Structure

Form

Excerpt characterizing Flat Bones

- No, I saw... Then there was nothing, suddenly I see that he is lying.
– Andrey is lying down? Is he sick? – Natasha asked, looking at her friend with fearful, stopped eyes.
- No, on the contrary, - on the contrary, a cheerful face, and he turned to me - and at that moment as she spoke, it seemed to her that she saw what she was saying.
- Well, then, Sonya?...
– I didn’t notice something blue and red here...
- Sonya! when will he return? When I see him! My God, how I’m afraid for him and for myself, and for everything I’m afraid...” Natasha spoke, and without answering a word to Sonya’s consolations, she went to bed and long after the candle had been put out, with with open eyes, lay motionless on the bed and looked at the frosty, moonlight through frozen windows.

Soon after Christmas, Nikolai announced to his mother his love for Sonya and his firm decision to marry her. The Countess, who had long noticed what was happening between Sonya and Nikolai and was expecting this explanation, silently listened to his words and told her son that he could marry whomever he wanted; but that neither she nor his father would give him his blessing for such a marriage. For the first time, Nikolai felt that his mother was unhappy with him, that despite all her love for him, she would not give in to him. She, coldly and without looking at her son, sent for her husband; and when he arrived, the countess wanted to briefly and coldly tell him what was the matter in the presence of Nikolai, but she could not resist: she cried tears of frustration and left the room. The old count began to hesitantly admonish Nicholas and ask him to abandon his intention. Nicholas replied that he could not change his word, and the father, sighing and obviously embarrassed, very soon interrupted his speech and went to the countess. In all his clashes with his son, the count was never left with the consciousness of his guilt towards him for the breakdown of affairs, and therefore he could not be angry with his son for refusing to marry a rich bride and for choosing the dowryless Sonya - only in this case did he more vividly remember what, if things weren’t upset, it would be impossible to wish for a better wife for Nikolai than Sonya; and that only he and his Mitenka and his irresistible habits are to blame for the disorder of affairs.

Tubular bones They are long and short and perform the functions of support, protection and movement. Tubular bones have a body, a diaphysis, in the form of a bone tube, the cavity of which is filled in adults with yellow bone marrow. The ends of the tubular bones are called epiphyses. The cells of spongy tissue contain red bone marrow. Between the diaphysis and epiphyses are the metaphyses, which are areas of bone growth in length.

Spongy bones distinguish between long (ribs and sternum) and short (vertebrae, carpal bones, tarsus).

They are constructed of a spongy substance covered with a thin layer of compact. Spongy bones include sesamoid bones (patella, pisiform bone, sesamoid bones of the fingers and toes). They develop in muscle tendons and are auxiliary devices for their work.

Flat bones , forming the roof of the skull, built from two thin plates of a compact substance, between which there is a spongy substance, diploe, containing cavities for veins; the flat bones of the belts are built of spongy substance (scapula, pelvic bones). Flat bones serve as support and protection,

Mixed dice merge from several parts that have different functions, structure and development (bones of the base of the skull, collarbone).

Question 2. Types of bone joints.

All bone connections can be divided into 2 groups:

continuous connections - synarthrosis (immobile or sedentary);

discontinuous joints - diarthrosis or joints (mobile according to function).

The transitional form of bone joints from continuous to discontinuous is characterized by the presence of a small gap, but the absence of an articular capsule, as a result of which this form is called a semi-joint or symphysis.

Continuous connections are synarthrosis.

There are 3 types of synarthrosis:

Syndesmosis is the joining of bones using ligaments (ligaments, membranes, sutures). Example: skull bones.

Synchondrosis is a connection of bones using cartilage tissue (temporary and permanent). The cartilage tissue located between the bones acts as a buffer, softening shocks and shocks. Example: vertebrae, first rib and vertebra.

Synostosis is the joining of bones through bone tissue. Example: pelvic bones.

Discontinuous joints, joints – diarthrosis . At least two are involved in the formation of joints articular surfaces , between which is formed cavity , closed joint capsule . Articular cartilage , covering the articular surfaces of the bones are smooth and elastic, which reduces friction and softens shocks. The articular surfaces correspond or do not correspond to each other. The articular surface of one bone is convex and is the articular head, and the surface of the other bone is correspondingly concave, forming the articular cavity.

The joint capsule is attached to the bones that form the joint. Hermetically closes the joint cavity. It consists of two membranes: outer fibrous and inner synovial. The latter secretes a clear liquid into the joint cavity - synovia, which moisturizes and lubricates the articular surfaces, reducing friction between them. In some joints, the synovial membrane forms, protruding into the joint cavity and containing a significant amount of fat.

Sometimes protrusions or inversions of the synovial membrane are formed - synovial bursae lying near the joint, at the junction of tendons or muscles. Synovial bursae contain synovial fluid and reduce friction of tendons and muscles during movement.

The articular cavity is a hermetically sealed, slit-like space between the articular surfaces. Synovial fluid creates a pressure in the joint below atmospheric pressure, which prevents the divergence of the articular surfaces. In addition, synovia is involved in fluid exchange and strengthening of the joint.

Some facial bones and skull bones, sternum bones, ribs, shoulder blades, femurs classified as flat bones. This article contains a list of all flat bones in human body.

Do you know what?

The largest number of red blood cells in adults are found in flat bones. These bones have marrow, but they do not have a cavity for the marrow.

Human skeleton is a bone base that not only gives the body shape, but also protects vital internal organs. Reduction skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones, facilitate movement. In addition, the bone marrow of individual bones also produces red and white blood cells. At birth, the human skeleton contains about 300 bones, but the number of bones in adults decreases to 206. The human skeleton consists of the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. While the axial skeleton consists of the skull, sternum, ribs and vertebral column (bones that lie along an imaginary longitudinal axis), the appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the arms, legs, shoulder and pelvic girdle. The axial and appendicular skeletons consist of 80 and 126 bones, respectively.

The bones of the human body are divided into long bones, short bones, sesamoid bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and intra-sutural bones. Long bones include the femur, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna bones and humerus bones. The cuboid short bones include the carpal joint, tarsal bones (foot), metacarpal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalangeal bones. Sesamoid bones are small bones that are embedded in some tendons. The patella (kneecap) is an example of sesamoid bones. Non-permanent bones, as the name suggests, have irregular shape. The hyoid bones and vertebrae are examples of irregular bones.

As the name suggests, flat bones are strong, flat plates of bone. They are curved and have a large surface area for muscle attachment. Most provide protection for the soft tissue and vital organs that lie underneath. To understand the structure of flat bones, you need to understand the difference between compact bone and spongy bone. Basically, these two types of bone tissue differ in density.

Compact bone is made up of osteons that are tightly packed. The osteon contains the Haversian canal, which is a central canal that contains several blood vessels and nerve fibers, which are surrounded by concentric matrix rings called lamellae. Between these lamellae are small chambers (lacunae) that contain osteocytes (mature bone cells) in a concentric arrangement around the Haversian canal.

On the other hand, cancellous bones are less dense. They consist of trabeculae or bar-shaped bone that are located along the stress line. They provide strength at the ends of the load-bearing bone. The spaces between them contain red bone marrow. In the case of flat bones, spongy/cancellous bone is found between two layers of compact bone. The structure of these bones is such that they provide protection. In the case of skull bones, the layers of compact tissue are called cranial tables. The outer layer is hard and thick, the inner layer is thin, dense and brittle. This thin layer is called the glass table. In certain areas of the skull, spongy tissue is absorbed, leaving behind air-filled spaces (sinuses) between the two tables.

Flat, wide bones provide protection and muscle attachment. These bones are expanded into wide, flat slabs, as in the skull, hip bones, sternum, rib cage and scapula.

The flat bones of the human body are:

Occipital
Parietal
Frontal
Nasal
Tearful
Opener
Shoulder blades
Femoral
Sternum
Ribs

Skull and facial bones

The bones of the skull include the occipital bone, two parietal bones, frontal bone, two temporal bones, sphenoid bone and ethmoid bone. Upper part and both sides of the head are formed in pairs parietal bones. The frontal bone forms the forehead, while the occipital bone forms the back of the head. All these thin, curved plates protect the brain in the event of traumatic injury. There are fourteen facial bones, including the jaws, cheekbones, lacrimal, nasal, inferior turbinates, palatines, vomer, and mandible. Of these, the nasal bones (two oblong shaped bones that form the back of the nose), lacrimal bone(the small bone of the skull that lies in front of the medial wall of the orbit) and the vomer (the quadrangular-shaped bone that forms the lower and posterior part of the nasal septum) are classified as flat bones.

Ribs

The human rib cage consists of twelve pairs of curved, flat bones called ribs, twelve thoracic vertebrae, and a T-shaped bone called the sternum. Ribs are classified into true ribs, false ribs, and floating ribs. The first seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs. The ends of these ribs are attached to the sternum by costal cartilage, which is embedded in connective tissue. The next three pairs of ribs, called false ribs, connect to the costal cartilages with the lowest pair of ribs. The last two pairs of ribs are called floating ribs. They are attached only to the spine and do not connect to the sternum.

Spatula

The scapula is a triangular bone that forms the back of the shoulder girdle. She joins humerus(upper arm bone) in the collarbone. These are flat, paired bones with a large surface area for muscle attachment. The scapula has three angles (lateral, superior, and inferior), three borders (superior, lateral, and medial), three processes (acromion, vertebral column, and coracoid), and two surfaces (costal and posterior).

Sternum

The sternum is a flat T-shaped bone that is located in the upper middle region in the anterior section chest. It is part of the chest. It is attached to the cartilage of the true ribs (the first seven pairs) and the clavicle on both sides. It is convex-shaped in the front and slightly concave in the back.

Femurs

Right and left bone The hips, sacrum and coccyx form the pelvis in the human body. The right and left femurs meet in front at the symphysis pubis, and connect to the sacrum behind. Each pelvic bone consists of 3 parts, which are called the ilium, ischium and pubis. These three bones make up the anterolateral portion of the pelvis. The ilium is the largest of these bones and forms the main section hip bone. The ischium forms the lower section of the back, and the pubis forms bottom part front. These bones are separated in childhood but fuse together in hip joint at the age of 25 years.

Flat bones are important because they not only protect vital important organs and tissue, but also provide a large surface area for the attachment of ligaments and tendons. In addition, cancellous bone tissue, which lies between layers of tough, compact bone tissue, also contains red bone marrow.

Important part musculoskeletal system a human is a skeleton consisting of more than two hundred different bones. It allows people to move and supports internal organs. In addition, they are a concentration minerals, as well as the membrane that contains the bone marrow.

Skeletal functions

The various types of bones that make up the human skeleton primarily act as a means of support and support for the body. Some of them serve as a container for certain internal organs, such as the brain, located in the bones of the skull, lungs and heart, located in the chest, and others.

We also owe the ability to perform various movements and move around to our own skeleton. In addition, human bones contain up to 99% of the calcium found in the body. Red bone marrow is of great importance in human life. It is located in the skull, spine, sternum, collarbones and some other bones. Blood cells are born in the bone marrow: red blood cells, platelets and leukocytes.

Bone structure

The anatomy of bone has extraordinary properties that determine its strength. The skeleton must withstand a load of 60-70 kg - this is the average weight of a person. In addition, the bones of the trunk and limbs act as levers that allow us to make movements and perform various actions. This is achieved due to their amazing composition.

Bones consist of organic (up to 35%) and inorganic (up to 65%) substances. The first include protein, mainly collagen, which determines the firmness and elasticity of tissues. Inorganic substances - calcium and phosphorus salts - are responsible for hardness. The combination of these elements gives the bones special strength, comparable, for example, to cast iron. They can be perfectly preserved for many years, as evidenced by the results of various excavations. may disappear as a result of calcination of tissues, as well as when exposed to sulfuric acid. Minerals are very resistant to external influences.

Human bones are penetrated by special tubules through which blood vessels run. In their structure, it is customary to distinguish between compact and spongy substances. Their ratio is determined by the location of the bone in the human body, as well as the functions it performs. In areas where resistance to heavy loads, the main one is a dense compact substance. Such a bone consists of many cylindrical plates placed one inside the other. Spongy substance appearance resembles a honeycomb. In its cavities there is red bone marrow, and in adults there is also yellow bone marrow, in which fat cells are concentrated. The bone is covered by a special connective tissue membrane - the periosteum. It is permeated with nerves and blood vessels.

Classification of bones

There are various classifications, which cover all types of bones of the human skeleton depending on their location, structure and functions.

1. By location:

cranial bones;
trunk bones;
limb bones.

2. According to development they distinguish the following types bones:

primary (appears from connective tissue);
secondary (formed from cartilage);
mixed.

3. The following types of human bones are distinguished by structure:

tubular;
spongy;
flat;
mixed.

Thus, science knows various types bones. The table makes it possible to more clearly present this classification.

Tubular bones

Tubular long bones consist of both dense and spongy substance. They can be divided into several parts. The middle of the bone is formed by a compact substance and has an elongated tubular shape. This area is called the diaphysis. Its cavities first contain red bone marrow, which is gradually replaced by yellow bone marrow containing fat cells.

At the ends of the tubular bone there is an epiphysis - this is an area formed by spongy substance. Red bone marrow is placed inside it. The area between the diaphysis and the epiphysis is called the metaphysis.

During the period of active growth of children and adolescents, it contains cartilage, due to which the bone grows. Over time, the anatomy of the bone changes, the metaphysis completely turns into bone tissue. Long bones include the thigh, shoulder, and forearm bones. Tubular small bones have a slightly different structure. They have only one true epiphysis and, accordingly, one metaphysis. These bones include the phalanges of the fingers and metatarsal bones. They function as short movement levers.

Spongy types of bones. Pictures

The name of the bones often indicates their structure. For example, cancellous bones are formed from spongy substance covered thin layer compact. They do not have developed cavities, so the red bone marrow is placed in small cells. Spongy bones are also long and short. The first include, for example, the sternum and ribs. Short spongy bones are involved in the work of muscles and are a kind of auxiliary mechanism. These include the vertebrae.

Flat bones

These types of human bones, depending on their location, have different structure and perform certain functions. The bones of the skull are, first of all, protection for the brain. They are formed by two thin plates of dense substance, between which there is a spongy substance. It contains holes for veins. The flat bones of the skull develop from connective tissue. The scapula and also belong to the type of flat bones. They are formed almost entirely from spongy substance, which develops from cartilage tissue. These types of bones serve not only as protection, but also as support.

Mixed dice

Mixed bones are a combination of flat and short spongy or tubular bones. They are evolving in various ways and perform those functions that are necessary in a particular area of the human skeleton. Types of bones such as mixed bones are found in the body temporal bone, vertebrae. These include, for example, the collarbone.

Cartilage tissue

Cartilage tissue has an elastic structure. She shapes ears, nose, some parts of the ribs. It is also located between the vertebrae, as it perfectly resists the deforming force of loads. It has high strength, excellent resistance to abrasion and compression.

Connection of bones

There are different ones that determine the degree of their mobility. The bones of the skull, for example, have a thin layer of connective tissue. At the same time, they are absolutely motionless. This connection is called fibrous. Between the vertebrae there are also areas of connective or cartilaginous tissue. This connection is called semi-mobile, since the bones, although limited, can move slightly.

The joints that form synovial joints have the highest mobility. The bones in the joint capsule are held in place by ligaments. These fabrics are both flexible and durable. In order to reduce friction, the joint contains a special oily fluid - synovium. It envelops the ends of the bones, covered with cartilage tissue, and facilitates their movement.

There are several types of joints. Just as the name of bones is determined by their structure, the name of joints depends on the shape of the bones that they connect. Each type allows you to perform certain movements:

Ball and socket joint. With this connection, the bones move in many directions at once. These joints include the shoulder and hip.
Block joint (elbow, knee). Involves movement exclusively in one plane.
Cylindrical joint allows bones to move relative to each other.
Flat joint. It is inactive and provides small-scale movements between two bones.
Ellipsoid joint. Thus connected, for example, radius with carpal bones. They can move from side to side within the same plane.
Thanks to saddle joint thumb hands can move in different planes.

Effect of physical activity

The degree of physical activity has a significant impact on the shape and structure of bones. U different people the same bone can have its own characteristics. With constant, impressive physical exertion, the compact substance thickens, and the cavity, on the contrary, shrinks in size.

Negatively affects bone health long stay in bed, sedentary lifestyle. Fabrics become thinner, lose their strength and elasticity, and become fragile.

The shape of the bones also changes under the influence of physical activity. The areas where the muscles act on them may become flatter. With particularly intense pressure, small indentations may even appear over time. In areas of severe stretching, where ligaments act on the bones, thickenings, various irregularities, and tubercles can form. Such changes are especially typical for people who are professionally involved in sports.

The shape of bones is also influenced by various injuries, especially those sustained in adulthood. When a fracture heals, all sorts of deformations can occur, which often negatively affect the ability to effectively control your body.

Age-related changes in bones

IN different periods Throughout a person's life, the structure of his bones is not the same. In infants, almost all bones consist of spongy substance, which is covered with a thin layer of compact. Their continuous, up to a certain time, growth is achieved due to an increase in the size of cartilage, which is gradually replaced by bone tissue. This transformation continues until the age of 20 in women and until approximately 25 in men.

The younger a person is, the more organic substances are contained in the tissues of his bones. Therefore, in early age they are elastic and flexible. In an adult, the volume of mineral compounds in bone tissue is up to 70%. At the same time, from a certain point, a decrease in the amount of calcium and phosphorus salts begins. Bones become fragile, so older people often experience fractures even as a result of a minor injury or careless sudden movement.

Such fractures take a long time to heal. There is a special disease characteristic of older people, especially women - osteoporosis. To prevent it, when you reach the age of 50, you need to consult a doctor to conduct some studies to assess the condition of the bone tissue. With appropriate treatment, the risk of fractures is significantly reduced and their healing time is shortened.

Morphology, physiology and pathophysiology of the musculoskeletal system.

Movement plays huge role in living nature and is one of the main adaptive reactions to the environment external environment and a necessary factor in human development. Human movement in space is carried out thanks to the musculoskeletal system.

The musculoskeletal system is formed by bones, their joints and striated muscles.

Bones and their connections are the passive part of the musculoskeletal system, and muscles are the active part.

General anatomy of the skeleton. The human skeleton (skeletos) consists of more than 200 bones, 85 of them are paired, connected to each other using connective tissue of different structures.

Skeletal functions .

The skeleton performs mechanical and biological functions.

To mechanical functions skeletons include:

· protection,

· movement.

The bones of the skeleton form cavities (spinal canal, skull, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic) that protect the internal organs located in them from external influences.

Support is provided by the attachment of muscles and ligaments to various parts of the skeleton, as well as the maintenance of internal organs.

Movement is possible in places of movable bone connections - in joints. They are driven by muscles under the control of the nervous system.

To biological functions skeletons include:

· participation of bones in metabolism, especially in mineral metabolism - it is a depot of mineral salts (phosphorus, calcium, iron, etc.)

· participation of bones in hematopoiesis. The function of hematopoiesis is performed by red bone marrow contained in spongy bones.

Mechanical and biological functions mutually influence each other.

Each bone occupies a specific position in the human body and has its own anatomical structure and performs its inherent functions.

Bone consists of several types of tissues, the main place of which is hard tissue. connective tissue– bone.

The outside of the bone is covered periosteum, except for articular surfaces covered with articular cartilage.

Bone contains red bone marrow, adipose tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves.

Chemical composition of bone. Bone consists of 1/3 organic (ossein, etc.) and 2/3 inorganic (calcium salts, especially phosphates) substances. Under the influence of acids (hydrochloric, nitric, etc.), calcium salts dissolve, and the bone with the remaining organic substances will retain its shape, but will become soft and elastic. If you burn a bone, the organic substances will burn out, but the inorganic substances will remain. The bone will also retain its shape, but it will become very fragile. It follows that the elasticity of bone depends on ossein, and mineral salts give it hardness.

IN childhood bones contain more organic matter, so children's bones are more flexible and rarely break. In older people chemical composition Inorganic substances predominate in the bones, the bones become less elastic and more fragile, and therefore break more often.

Classification of bones. According to the classification of M.G. Gain, bones are: tubular, spongy, flat and mixed.

Spongy bones distinguish between long (ribs and sternum) and short (vertebrae, carpal bones, tarsus).

Flat bones, forming the roof of the skull, built from two thin plates of a compact substance, between which there is a spongy substance, diploe, containing cavities for veins; the flat bones of the belts are built of spongy substance (scapula, pelvic bones). Flat bones serve as support and protection,

Mixed dice merge from several parts that have different functions, structure and development (bones of the base of the skull, collarbone).

Question 2. Types of bone joints.

All bone connections can be divided into 2 groups:

1) continuous connections - synarthrosis (immobile or sedentary);

2) discontinuous joints - diarthrosis or joints (mobile in function).

Continuous connections are synarthrosis.

There are 3 types of synarthrosis:

1) Syndesmosis – connection of bones using ligaments (ligaments, membranes, sutures). Example: skull bones.

2) Synchondrosis - connection of bones using cartilage tissue (temporary and permanent). The cartilage tissue located between the bones acts as a buffer, softening shocks and shocks. Example: vertebrae, first rib and vertebra.

3) Synostosis – connection of bones through bone tissue. Example: pelvic bones.

Discontinuous joints, joints – diarthrosis. At least two are involved in the formation of joints articular surfaces , between which is formed cavity , closed joint capsule . Articular cartilage , covering the articular surfaces of bones, is smooth and elastic, which reduces friction and softens shocks. The articular surfaces correspond or do not correspond to each other. The articular surface of one bone is convex and is the articular head, and the surface of the other bone is correspondingly concave, forming the articular cavity.

The joint capsule is attached to the bones that form the joint. Hermetically closes the joint cavity. It consists of two membranes: outer fibrous and inner synovial. The latter secretes a clear liquid into the joint cavity - synovium, which moisturizes and lubricates the articular surfaces, reducing friction between them. In some joints, the synovial membrane forms, protruding into the joint cavity and containing significant amount fat

The articular cavity is a hermetically sealed slit-like space between the articular surfaces. Synovial fluid creates a pressure in the joint below atmospheric pressure, which prevents the divergence of the articular surfaces. In addition, synovia is involved in fluid exchange and strengthening of the joint.

Question 3. The structure of the skeleton of the head, torso and limbs.

The skeleton has the following parts:

1. axial skeleton

· skeleton of the body (vertebrae, ribs, sternum)

· the skeleton of the head (bones of the skull and face) form;

2. extra skeleton

bones of limb girdles

Upper (scapula, collarbone)

Lower (pelvic bone)

bones of free limbs

Upper (shoulder, forearm and hand bones)

Lower (thigh, leg bones and foot).

Spinal column is part of the axial skeleton, performs supporting, protective and locomotor functions: ligaments and muscles are attached to it, protects those located in its canal spinal cord and participates in the movements of the torso and skull. The spinal column is S-shaped due to human upright posture.

The spinal column has the following sections: cervical, consisting of 7, thoracic - of 12, lumbar - of 5, sacral - of 5 and coccygeal - of 1-5 vertebrae. The size of the vertebral bodies gradually increases from top to bottom, reaching its greatest size at the lumbar vertebrae; The sacral vertebrae fuse into a single bone, due to the fact that they bear the weight of the head, torso and upper limbs.

The coccygeal vertebrae are the remnants of the disappeared tail in humans.

Where the spine experiences the greatest functional load, the vertebrae and their individual parts are well developed. The coccygeal spine does not bear any functional load and is therefore a rudimentary formation.

The spinal column in the human skeleton is located vertically, but not straight, but forms bends in the sagittal plane. Bends in the cervical and lumbar regions directed forward and are called lordoses , and in the thoracic and sacral - convexly facing backward - this is kyphosis . The curves of the spine form after the birth of a child and become permanent by the age of 7-8 years.

When the load increases, the curves of the spinal column increase; when the load decreases, they become smaller.

The curves of the spinal column are shock absorbers during movements - they soften shocks along the spinal column, thus protecting the skull, and the brain located in it, from excessive shocks.

If the indicated bends of the spinal column in the sagittal plane are normal, then the appearance of bends in the frontal plane (usually in the cervical and thoracic regions), is considered a pathology and is called scoliosis . The causes of scoliosis can be different. Thus, schoolchildren may develop a pronounced lateral curvature of the spinal column - school scoliosis, as a result of improper sitting or carrying a load (bag) in one hand. Scoliosis can develop not only in schoolchildren, but also in adults in certain professions associated with curvature of the torso during work. To prevent scoliosis, special gymnastics is necessary.

In old age, the spinal column becomes shorter due to a decrease in thickness intervertebral discs, the vertebrae themselves and loss of elasticity. The spinal column bends anteriorly, forming one large thoracic curve (senile hump).

The spinal column is a fairly mobile formation. Thanks to intervertebral discs and it is flexible and elastic to the ligaments. Cartilage pushes the vertebrae away from each other, and ligaments connect them to each other.

chest form 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum.

Sternum consists of three parts: the manubrium, the body and the xiphoid process. The jugular notch is located on the upper edge of the handle.

There are 12 pairs of ribs in the human skeleton. With their posterior ends they connect with the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae. The 7 upper pairs of ribs, with their anterior ends, connect directly to the sternum and are called true ribs . The next three pairs (VIII, IX and X) join with their cartilaginous ends to the cartilage of the previous rib and are called false ribs . The XI and XII pairs of ribs are located freely in the abdominal muscles - this is oscillating ribs .

Rib cage has the shape of a truncated cone, the upper end of which is narrow and the lower end wider. Due to upright posture, the chest is somewhat compressed from front to back.

The lower ribs form the right and left costal arches. Under xiphoid process The right and left costal arches of the sternum converge, limiting the substernal angle, the magnitude of which depends on the shape of the chest.

Shape and size chest depends on: age, gender, physique, degree of development of muscles and lungs, lifestyle and profession this person. The chest contains vital organs - the heart, lungs, etc.

There are 3 chest shapes : flat, cylindrical and conical.

In people with well-developed muscles and lungs, a brachymorphic body type, the chest becomes wide, but short and acquires conical shape. She seems to be in a state of inhalation all the time. The substernal angle of such a chest will be obtuse.

In people with a dolichomorphic body type, with poorly developed muscles and lungs, the chest becomes narrow and long. This chest shape is called flat. Its front wall is almost vertical, the ribs are strongly inclined. The chest is in a state of exhalation.

In humans, brachymorphic?? (meso) body type the chest has cylindrical shape , occupying an intermediate position between the previous two. In women, the chest is shorter and narrower in the lower section than in men, and more rounded. During the process of growth and development, social factors influence the shape of the chest.

Poor living conditions and poor nutrition in children can have a significant impact on the shape of the chest. Children growing up with a lack of nutrition and solar radiation develop rickets (“English disease”), in which the chest takes on the shape of a “chicken breast.” The anteroposterior size predominates in it, and the sternum protrudes forward. In children with incorrect sitting posture, the chest is long and flat. The muscles are poorly developed. The chest seems to be in a collapsed state, which negatively affects the activity of the heart and lungs. For proper development chest and disease prevention in children need physical education, massage, proper nutrition, sufficient lighting and other conditions.

Scull (cranium) is a container for the brain and sensory organs associated with the latter; in addition, it surrounds the initial sections of the digestive and respiratory tracts. In this regard, the skull is divided into 2 parts: the brain and the facial. The cranium has a vault and a base.

Brain section of the skull in humans they form: unpaired - occipital, sphenoid, frontal and ethmoid bones and paired - temporal and parietal bones.

Facial part of the skull form pairs - upper jaw, inferior nasal concha, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal and unpaired - vomer, lower jaw and sublingual.

The bones of the skull are connected to each other mainly by sutures.

In the skull of a newborn brain section the skull is relatively larger than the facial one. As a result, the facial skull protrudes slightly forward compared to the brain skull and makes up only an eighth of the latter, while in an adult this ratio is 1:4. Between the bones that form the cranial vault are the fontanelles. The fontanelles are remnants of the membranous skull; they are located at the intersection of the sutures. The fontanelles are of great functional importance. The bones of the cranial vault can overlap each other during childbirth, adapting to the shape and size of the birth canal.

The sphenoid and mastoid fontanels close either at the time of birth or immediately after birth. Newborns have no stitches. Bones have smooth surfaces. There is cartilaginous tissue between the individual parts of the bones of the base of the skull that have not yet fused. There are no air sinuses in the bones of the skull. The upper and lower jaws are poorly developed: the alveolar processes are almost absent, the lower?? the jaw consists of two unfused halves. In adulthood, ossification of the sutures of the skull is observed.

Skeleton of the upper and lower limbs has a general structural plan and consists of two sections: the belts and the free upper and lower limbs. By means of belts, free limbs are attached to the body.

Belt upper limb form two paired bones: the clavicle and the scapula.

Skeleton of the free upper limb consists of three sections: proximal - humerus; middle - two bones of the forearm - ulna and radius; and distal - the bones of the hand.

The hand has three sections: the wrist, metacarpus and phalanges of the fingers.

Wrist form eight short spongy bones, located in 2 rows. Each row consists of four bones.

Pastern (metacarpus) is formed by five short tubular metacarpal bones

The bones of the fingers are the phalanges. Each finger has three phalanges located one behind the other. The exception is the thumb, which has only two phalanges.