Phagocytosis is the main mechanism of the immune system. Phagocytosis is the main mechanism of the immune system. Lymphocytes are not capable of phagocytosis

14.07.2019 -

Phagocytosis (Phago - devour and cytos - cell) is a process in which special cells of the blood and body tissues (phagocytes) capture and digest pathogens infectious diseases and dead cells.

It is carried out by two types of cells: granular leukocytes (granulocytes) circulating in the blood and tissue macrophages. The discovery of phagocytosis belongs to I.I. Mechnikov, who identified this process by conducting experiments with starfish and daphnia, introducing foreign bodies into their bodies. For example, when Mechnikov placed a fungal spore into the body of daphnia, he noticed that it was attacked by special mobile cells. When he introduced too many spores, the cells did not have time to digest them all, and the animal died. Mechnikov called cells that protect the body from bacteria, viruses, fungal spores, etc. phagocytes.

Phagocytosis, the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles by unicellular organisms or special cells (phagocytes) of multicellular animal organisms. The phenomenon of F. was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov, who traced its evolution and clarified the role of this process in the protective reactions of the body of higher animals and humans, mainly during inflammation and immunity. F. plays an important role in wound healing. The ability to capture and digest particles underlies the nutrition of primitive organisms. In the process of evolution, this ability gradually transferred to individual specialized cells, first digestive, and then to special cells connective tissue. In humans and mammals, active phagocytes are neutrophils (microphages, or special leukocytes) of the blood and cells of the reticuloendothelial system, capable of turning into active macrophages. Neutrophils phagocytose small particles (bacteria, etc.), macrophages are able to absorb larger particles (dead cells, their nuclei or fragments, etc.). Macrophages are also capable of accumulating negatively charged particles of dyes and colloidal substances. The absorption of small colloidal particles is called ultraphagocytosis, or colloidopexy.

Neutrophils and monocytes have the greatest ability for phagocytosis.

1. Neutrophils are the first to penetrate the site of inflammation and phagocytose microbes. In addition, lysosomal enzymes of decaying neutrophils soften the surrounding tissues and form a purulent focus.

2. Monocytes, migrating into tissues, transform there into macrophages and phagocytose everything that is in the source of inflammation: microbes, destroyed leukocytes, damaged cells and tissues of the body, etc. In addition, they enhance the synthesis of enzymes that promote the formation fibrous tissue at the site of inflammation, and thereby promote wound healing.

The phagocyte picks up individual signals (chemotaxis) and migrates in their direction (chemokinesis). The mobility of leukocytes manifests itself in the presence of special substances (chemoattractants). Chemoattractants interact with specific neutrophil receptors. As a result of the interaction of myosin actin, pseudopodia are extended and the phagocyte moves. Moving in this way, the leukocyte penetrates the capillary wall, exits into the tissue and comes into contact with the phagocytosed object. As soon as the ligand interacts with the receptor, the conformation of the latter (this receptor) occurs and the signal is transmitted to the enzyme associated with the receptor into a single complex. Due to this, the phagocytosed object is absorbed and merges with the lysosome. In this case, the phagocytosed object either dies ( completed phagocytosis), or continues to live and develop in the phagocyte ( incomplete phagocytosis).

Last stage phagocytosis – destruction of the ligand. At the moment of contact with the phagocytosed object, membrane enzymes (oxidases) are activated, oxidative processes inside the phagolysosomes sharply increase, resulting in the death of bacteria.

Function of neutrophils. Neutrophils remain in the blood for only a few hours (in transit from the bone marrow to tissues), and their inherent functions are performed outside the vascular bed (exit from the vascular bed occurs as a result of chemotaxis) and only after activation of neutrophils. The main function is phagocytosis of tissue debris and destruction of opsonized microorganisms (opsonization is the attachment of antibodies or complement proteins to the bacterial cell wall, which allows recognition of this bacterium and phagocytosis). Phagocytosis occurs in several stages. After preliminary specific recognition of the material to be phagocytosed, invagination of the neutrophil membrane around the particle occurs and the formation of a phagosome. Next, as a result of the fusion of the phagosome with lysosomes, a phagolysosome is formed, after which the bacteria are destroyed and the captured material is destroyed. For this, the following enter the phagolysosome: lysozyme, cathepsin, elastase, lactoferrin, defensins, cationic proteins; myeloperoxidase; superoxide O 2 – and hydroxyl radical OH – formed (along with H 2 O 2) during a respiratory explosion. Respiratory burst: neutrophils sharply increase oxygen uptake within the first seconds after stimulation and quickly consume significant amounts of it. This phenomenon is known as respiratory (oxygen) explosion. In this case, H 2 O 2, superoxide O 2 – and hydroxyl radical OH –, which are toxic to microorganisms, are formed. After a single outbreak of activity, the neutrophil dies. Such neutrophils constitute the main component of pus (“pus” cells).

Function of basophils. Activated basophils leave the bloodstream and participate in tissues allergic reactions. Basophils have highly sensitive surface receptors for IgE fragments, which are synthesized by plasma cells when antigens enter the body. After interaction with immunoglobulin, basophils degranulate. The release of histamine and other vasoactive factors during degranulation and the oxidation of arachidonic acid cause the development of an immediate allergic reaction (such reactions are characteristic of allergic rhinitis, some forms bronchial asthma, anaphylactic shock).

Macrophage is a differentiated form of monocytes - a large (about 20 microns), mobile cell of the mononuclear phagocyte system. Macrophages - professional phagocytes, they are found in all tissues and organs, they are a mobile population of cells. The lifespan of macrophages is months. Macrophages are divided into resident and mobile. Resident macrophages are present in tissues normally, in the absence of inflammation. Macrophages capture denatured proteins and aged red blood cells from the blood (fixed macrophages of the liver, spleen, bone marrow). Macrophages phagocytose cell debris and tissue matrix. Nonspecific phagocytosis characteristic of alveolar macrophages that capture dust particles of various natures, soot, etc. Specific phagocytosis occurs when macrophages interact with an opsonized bacterium.

In addition to phagocytosis, the macrophage performs an extremely important function: it is an antigen-presenting cell. Antigen-presenting cells, in addition to macrophages, include dendritic cells of the lymph nodes and spleen, Langerhans cells of the epidermis, M cells in lymphatic follicles digestive tract, dendritic epithelial cells of the thymus gland. These cells capture, process (process) and present Ag on their surface to helper T lymphocytes, which leads to stimulation of lymphocytes and the launch of immune reactions. IL1 from macrophages activates T lymphocytes and, to a lesser extent, B lymphocytes.

Phagocytosis

In 1882-1883 the famous Russian zoologist I.I. Mechnikov conducted his research in Italy, on the shores of the Strait of Messina. The scientist was interested in whether individual cells of multicellular organisms retained the ability to capture and digest food, as single-celled organisms, such as amoebas, do. After all, as a rule, in multicellular organisms, food is digested in the digestive canal and the cells absorb ready-made nutrient solutions. Mechnikov observed starfish larvae. They are transparent and their contents are clearly visible. These larvae do not have circulating blood, but have cells wandering throughout the larva. They captured particles of red carmine dye introduced into the larva. But if these cells absorb paint, then maybe they capture any foreign particles? Indeed, rose thorns inserted into the larva turned out to be surrounded by cells stained with carmine.

The cells were able to capture and digest any foreign particles, including pathogenic microbes. Mechnikov called the wandering cells phagocytes (from the Greek words phages - eater and kytos - container, here - cell). And the process of capturing and digesting different particles by them is phagocytosis. Later, Mechnikov observed phagocytosis in crustaceans, frogs, turtles, lizards, as well as in mammals - guinea pigs, rabbits, rats and humans.

Phagocytes are special cells. They need digestion of captured particles not for nutrition, like amoebas and other single-celled organisms, but to protect the body. In starfish larvae, phagocytes wander throughout the body, and in higher animals and humans they circulate in the vessels. This is one of the types of white blood cells, or leukocytes, - neutrophils. It is they, attracted by the toxic substances of microbes, who move to the site of infection (see Taxis). Having emerged from the vessels, such leukocytes have outgrowths - pseudopods, or pseudopodia, with the help of which they move in the same way as amoeba and wandering cells of starfish larvae. Mechnikov called such leukocytes capable of phagocytosis microphages.

However, not only constantly moving leukocytes, but also some sedentary cells can become phagocytes (now they are all combined into unified system phagocytic mononuclear cells). Some of them rush to dangerous areas, for example, to the site of inflammation, while others remain in their usual places. Both are united by the ability to phagocytose. These tissue cells (histocytes, monocytes, reticular and endothelial cells) are almost twice as large as microphages - their diameter is 12–20 µm. Therefore, Mechnikov called them macrophages. There are especially many of them in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow and in the walls of blood vessels.

Microphages and wandering macrophages themselves actively attack “enemies,” and stationary macrophages wait for the “enemy” to swim past them in the blood or lymph flow. Phagocytes “hunt” for microbes in the body. It happens that in an unequal struggle with them they find themselves defeated. Pus is an accumulation of dead phagocytes. Other phagocytes will approach it and begin to eliminate it, as they do with all sorts of foreign particles.

Phagocytes cleanse tissues of constantly dying cells and participate in various changes in the body. For example, when a tadpole transforms into a frog, when, along with other changes, the tail gradually disappears, entire hordes of phagocytes destroy the tissues of the tadpole’s tail.

How do particles get inside the phagocyte? It turns out that with the help of pseudopodia, which grab them, like an excavator bucket. Gradually the pseudopodia lengthen and then close over foreign body. Sometimes it seems to be pressed into the phagocyte.

Mechnikov assumed that phagocytes should contain special substances that digest microbes and other particles captured by them. Indeed, such particles - lysosomes - were discovered 70 years after the discovery of phagocytosis. They contain enzymes that can break down large organic molecules.

It has now been found that, in addition to phagocytosis, antibodies primarily participate in the neutralization of foreign substances (see Antigen and Antibody). But for the process of their production to begin, the participation of macrophages is necessary. They capture foreign proteins (antigens), cut them into pieces, and expose pieces of them (called antigenic determinants) on their surface. Here those lymphocytes that are capable of producing antibodies (immunoglobulin proteins) that bind these determinants come into contact with them. After this, such lymphocytes multiply and release many antibodies into the blood, which inactivate (bind) foreign proteins - antigens (see Immunity). These issues are dealt with by the science of immunology, one of the founders of which was I. I. Mechnikov.

phagocytosis ability

Russian-English dictionary of biological terms. - Novosibirsk: Institute of Clinical Immunology. IN AND. Seledtsov. 1993-1999.

See what “the ability to phagocytosis” is in other dictionaries:

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MACROPHAGES - (from the Greek makros: large and phago eat), vulture. megalophages, macrophagocytes, large phagocytes. The term M. was proposed by Mechnikov, who divided all cells capable of phagocytosis into small phagocytes, microphages (see), and large phagocytes, macrophages. Under... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

TUMORS - TUMORS. Contents: I. Distribution of O. in the animal world. . .44 6 II. Statistics 0. 44 7 III. Structural and functional characteristic. 449 IV. Pathogenesis and etiology. 469 V. Classification and nomenclature. 478 VI.… …Big Medical Encyclopedia

LEUCOCYTES - (from the Greek leukos white and kytos cell), white or colorless bodies, one of the types of blood cells along with erythrocytes and platelets. The term “leukocyte” is used in two meanings: 1) to designate all... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

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Phagocytosis

One of the most important functions of leukocytes released from the vessels into the site of inflammation is phagocytosis, during which leukocytes recognize, absorb and destroy microorganisms that have entered the body, various foreign particles, as well as their own non-viable cells and tissues.

Not all leukocytes released into the site of inflammation are capable of phagocytosis. This ability is characteristic of neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages and eosinophils, which are considered so-called professional, or obligate (obligatory) phagocytes.

There are several stages in the process of phagocytosis:

1) the stage of adhesion (or attachment) of the phagocyte to the object,

2) the stage of absorption of the object and

3) the stage of intracellular destruction of the absorbed object. The adhesion of phagocytes to an object in some cases is due to

the existence on the membrane of phagocytes of receptors for molecules that make up the microbial wall (for example, for the carbohydrate zymosan), or for molecules that appear on the surface of their own dying cells. However, in most cases, the adhesion of phagocytes to microorganisms that have entered the body is carried out with the participation of so-called opsonins - serum factors that enter the site of inflammation as part of the inflammatory exudate. Opsonins bind to the surface of the microorganism's cell, after which the phagocyte membrane easily adheres to it. The main opsonins are immunoglobulins and the C3 complement fragment. Some plasma proteins (for example, C-reactive protein) and lysozyme also have opsonin properties.

The phenomenon of opsonization can be explained by the fact that opsonin molecules have at least two regions, one of which binds to the surface of the attacked particle, and the other to the membrane of the phagocyte, thus connecting both surfaces to each other. Class B immunoglobulins, for example, bind with their Pab fragments to microbial surface antigens, while the Pc fragments of these antibodies bind to the surface membrane of phagocytes, on which there are receptors for the Pc fragments! Danion, “taking away” an electron from the reduced pyridine nucleotide NADPH:

202 + NADPH -> 202- + NADP + + H + .

The NADPH reserves consumed during the “respiratory burst” begin to be immediately replenished by increased oxidation of glucose through the hexose monophosphate shunt.

Most of the superoxide anions 02_ formed during the reduction of 02 undergo dismutation to H2O2:

Some of the H2O2 molecules react in the presence of iron or copper with the superoxide anion to form the extremely active hydroxyl radical OH:

Cytoplasmic NADP oxidase is activated at the site of contact of the phagocyte with the microbe, and the formation of superoxide anions occurs at outside membranes of leukocytes, outside the internal environment of the cell. The process continues after the completion of the formation of the phagosome, as a result of which a high concentration of bactericidal radicals is created inside it. Radicals penetrating into the cytoplasm of the phagocyte are neutralized by the enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase.

The system for the formation of bactericidal oxygen metabolites operates in all professional phagocytes. In neutrophils, another powerful bactericidal system operates together with it - the myeloleroxidase system (a similar leroxidase system is also present in eosinophils, but it is not found in monocytes and macrophages).

myeloperoxidase C1- + H202 *OS1

Hypochlorite has a pronounced bactericidal effect on its own. In addition, it can react with ammonium or amines to form germicidal chloramines.

The oxygen-independent bactericidal mechanism is associated with degranulation - the entry into the phagosome of bactericidal substances contained in the intracellular granules of phagocytes.

When the formation of the phagosome is completed, granules of the cytoplasm of phagocytes come close to it. The granule membrane fuses with the phagosome membrane, and the contents of the granules flow into the phagosome. It is believed that the stimulus for degranulation is an increase in cytosolic Ca2+, the concentration of which increases especially strongly near the phagosome, where organelles accumulating calcium are located.

The cytoplasmic granules of all obligate phagocytes contain a large amount of biologically active substances, capable of killing and digesting microorganisms and other objects absorbed by phagocytes. Neutrophils, for example, have 3 types of granules:

Secondary (specific) granules.

The most easily mobilized secretory vesicles facilitate the exit of neutrophils from the vessels and their migration in tissues. Absorbed particles of azurophilic substances and specific granules are destroyed and destroyed. In addition to the already mentioned myeloperoxidase, azurophilic granules contain low molecular weight bactericidal peptides defensins, a weak bactericidal substance lysozyme, and many destructive enzymes that act independently of oxygen; in specific granules there is lysozyme and proteins that stop the proliferation of microorganisms, in particular, lactoferrin, which binds iron necessary for the life of microorganisms.

On the inner membrane of specific and azurophilic granules there is a proton pump, which transfers hydrogen ions from the cytoplasm of the phagocyte into the phagosome. As a result, the pH of the environment in the phagosome decreases to 4-5, which causes the death of many microorganisms inside the phagosome. After the microorganisms die, they are destroyed inside the phagosome by acidic hydrolases of azurophilic granules.

Forming peroxynitrite, which breaks down into cytotoxic free radicals OH* and N0".

Not all living microorganisms die inside phagocytes. Some, for example, pathogens of tuberculosis persist, while being “fenced off” by the membrane and cytoplasm of phagocytes from antimicrobial drugs.

Phagocytes activated by chemoattractants are capable of releasing the contents of their granules not only into the phagosome, but also into the extracellular space. This occurs during the so-called incomplete phagocytosis - in cases where, for one reason or another, the phagocyte cannot absorb the attacked object, for example, if the size of the latter significantly exceeds the size of the phagocyte itself or if the object of phagocytosis is antigen-antibody complexes located on the flat surface of the vascular endothelium. At the same time, the contents of the granules and the active oxygen metabolites produced by phagocytes affect both the object of attack and the tissues of the host body.

Damage to host tissues by toxic products of phagocytes becomes possible not only as a result of incomplete phagocytosis, but also after the death of leukocytes or due to destruction of the phagosome membrane by the absorbed particles themselves, for example, silicon particles or uric acid crystals.

Phagocytosis is the body's defender

Phagocytosis is the body's defense mechanism that ingests particulate matter. In the process of destroying harmful substances, waste, toxins, and decomposition waste are removed. Active cells are able to detect foreign tissue inclusions. They begin to quickly attack the aggressor, splitting it into simple particles.

The essence of the phenomenon

Phagocytosis is a defense against pathogens. Domestic scientist Mechnikov I.I. conducted experiments to study the phenomenon. He introduced foreign inclusions into the bodies of starfish and daphnia and recorded the results of his observations.

The stages of phagocytosis were recorded through microscopic examination of marine life. Fungal spores were used as the causative agent. Having placed them in starfish tissue, the scientist noticed the movement of active cells. The moving particles attacked again and again until they completely covered the foreign body.

However, after exceeding the amount of harmful components, the animal was unable to resist and died. The protective cells are given the name phagocytes, consisting of two Greek words: devour and cell.

Active particles of the defense mechanism

The action of leukocytes and macrophages is distinguished as a result of phagocytosis. These are not the only cells guarding the health of the body; in animals, the active particles are oocytes, placental “guardians”.

The phenomenon of phagocytosis is carried out by two protective cells:

Neutrophils - created in the bone marrow. They belong to granulocytic blood particles, the structure of which is distinguished by its granularity.
Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that come from the bone marrow. Young phagocytes have great mobility and construct the main protective barrier.

Selective protection

Phagocytosis is an active defense of the body, in which only pathogenic cells are destroyed, useful particles pass the barrier without complications. Quantitative assessment is used to analyze the state of human health by laboratory research blood. An increased concentration of leukocytes indicates an ongoing inflammatory process.

Phagocytosis is a protective barrier against a huge number of pathogens:

bacteria;
viruses;
blood clots;
tumor cells;
fungal spores;
toxins and slag inclusions.

White blood cell counts change periodically; correct conclusions are drawn after several general analyzes blood. So, in pregnant women the amount is slightly higher, and this normal condition body.

Low rates of phagocytosis are observed in long-term chronic diseases:

tuberculosis;
pyelonephritis;
infections respiratory tract;
rheumatism;
atopic dermatitis.

The activity of phagocytes changes under the influence of certain substances:

Avitaminoses, the use of antibiotics, and corticosteroids inhibit the defense mechanism. Phagocytosis assists the immune system. Forced activation occurs in three ways:

Classic - carried out according to the antigen-antibody principle. Activators are immunoglobulins IgG, IgM.
Alternative - polysaccharides, viral particles, tumor cells are used.
Lectin - a group of proteins that pass through the liver.

Particle destruction sequence

To understand the process defense mechanism The stages of phagocytosis are determined:

Chemotaxis is the period of penetration of a foreign particle into the human body. Characterized by copious discharge a chemical reagent that serves as a signal for activity for macrophages, neutrophils, and monocytes. Human immunity directly depends on the activity of protective cells. All awakened cells attack the area where the foreign body has been introduced.
Adhesion - recognition of a foreign body due to receptors by phagocytes.
Preparatory process of protective cells for attack.
Absorption - the particles gradually cover the foreign substance with their membrane.
The formation of a phagosome is the completion of the surrounding of a foreign body by a membrane.
Creation of a phagolysosome - digestive enzymes are released into the capsule.
Killing - killing harmful particles.
Removal of particle decomposition residues.

The stages of phagocytosis are considered by medicine to understand the internal processes of the development of any disease. The doctor must understand the basics of the phenomenon to diagnose inflammation.

Phagocytosis ability

in English language.

in mathematics and Russian

from school 162 of the Kirov district of St. Petersburg.

Establish a correspondence between the type of cell and its ability to phagocytosis.

The feeding of ciliates occurs as follows. On one side of the body of the shoe there is a funnel-shaped depression leading into the mouth and tubular pharynx. With the help of cilia lining the funnel, food particles (bacteria, unicellular algae, detritus) are driven into the mouth and then into the pharynx. From the pharynx, food penetrates into the cytoplasm by phagocytosis. The resulting digestive vacuole is picked up by a circular current of the cytoplasm. Within 1-1.5 hours, food is digested, absorbed into the cytoplasm, and undigested residues are removed through a hole in the pellicle - powder - out.

Phagocytosis is the active capture and absorption of foreign living objects (bacteria, cell fragments) and solid particles by unicellular organisms or cells of multicellular animals. Plants and fungi are not capable of this, because their cells have rigid cell walls. Chlorella and Chlamydomonas are plants that feed autotrophically, mucor is a fungus that absorbs dissolved substances.

According to your explanation, fungi are not capable of phagocytosis. But the assignment says that mucor is capable of phagocytosis, and mucor is a fungus.

Where in the assignment does it say that mucor is capable of phagocytosis? It has a rigid cell wall. It cannot change shape to capture particulate matter. Mucor feeds by suction.

The ciliate cell is covered with a pellicle and has a cellular mouth. How is it capable of phagocytosis?

Did I understand correctly, the cellular mouth of ciliates is the area intended for phagocytosis?

The entry of water into a plant cell occurs in the process

Osmosis is the diffusion of a substance, usually a solvent, through a semi-permeable membrane that separates a solution and a pure solvent or two solutions of different concentrations.

U plant cells there cannot be phagocytosis and pinocytosis due to the cell wall.

Phagocytosis is the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles.

Active transport - the transfer of a substance across a cellular or intracellular membrane or through a layer of cells, flowing against a concentration gradient from an area of low concentration to an area of high

Phagocytosis is the absorption of solid food particles by the cell. An example of phagocytosis is the capture of bacteria and viruses by leukocytes.

The amoeba's digestive vacuole is formed as a result of

Phagocytosis, the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles by unicellular organisms or special cells (phagocytes) of multicellular animal organisms.

In an amoeba, several pseudopods can simultaneously form, and then they surround food - bacteria, algae, and other protozoa (phagocytosis).

Digestive juice is secreted from the cytoplasm surrounding the prey. A bubble is formed - digestive vacuole.

Is pinocytosis not characteristic of amoeba?

A digestive vacuole is a membrane vesicle with a particle inside - i.e. phagocytosis

The entry of nutrients through phagocytosis occurs in cells

Phagocytosis is the capture of solid food particles by a cell. Characteristic of animal cells, they do not have cell walls, the membrane is plastic and capable of capturing particles.

The ability of the plasma membrane to surround a solid food particle and move it into the cell underlies the process

The ability of the plasma membrane to surround liquid droplets and move it into the cell underlies the process

Phagocytosis is the capture of a solid particle, diffusion is the directed process of transfer of molecules of a substance in solution along a concentration gradient across a membrane, osmosis is the selective permeability of water molecules through a membrane until the concentration is equalized on both sides of the membrane. Pinocytosis is the capture of a liquid particle.

As a result of what process are lipids oxidized?

Phagocytosis is the uptake of solid particles by the cell. During the process of photosynthesis and chemosynthesis, organic substances are formed. The oxidation of organic substances occurs in the energy process.

Find errors in the given text, correct them and explain your corrections.

1) In 1883, I.P. Pavlov reported the phenomenon of phagocytosis, which he discovered, which underlies cellular immunity.

2) Immunity is the body’s immunity to infections and foreign substances - antibodies.

3) Immunity can be specific and nonspecific.

4) Specific immunity is the body’s reaction to the action of unknown foreign agents.

5) Nonspecific immunity provides the body with protection only from known to the body antigens.

1) 1 - the phenomenon of phagocytosis was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov;

2) 2 - foreign substances are not antibodies, but antigens;

3) 4 - specific immunity is developed in response to the penetration of a known, specific antigen;

4) 5 - nonspecific immunity may occur in response to the penetration of any antigen.

There should be 3 answer options, not 4.

Read the explanations carefully before assignments.

“Find three errors in the given text. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which they are made, correct them. "Then you are right.

If “Find errors in the given text, correct them and explain your corrections” (without indicating a number), then there may be several errors in one sentence, or more than three errors.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of human blood cells and their type.

A) transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

B) provide the body with immunity

B) determine blood type

D) form pseudopods

D) capable of phagocytosis

E) 1 µl contains 5 million cells

Leukocytes are capable of amoeboid movement, with the help of pseudopods they capture bacteria, i.e. they are capable of phagocytosis, provide immune defense. The remaining signs are characteristic of erythrocytes.

Do red blood cells provide the body's immunity?

No. Immunity is a function of leukocytes. This is stated in the answer.

Phagocytosis is the process in which specially designed blood cells and body tissues (leukocytes = phagocytes) capture and digest solid particles.

The process of a cell absorbing fluid is

Phagocytosis is the process of active capture and absorption of living and nonliving particles by unicellular organisms or special cells (phagocytes) of multicellular animal organisms.

Cytokinesis is the division of the body of a eukaryotic cell. Cytokinesis usually occurs after a cell has undergone nuclear division (karyokinesis) through mitosis or meiosis.

Pinocytosis is the capture of fluid with the substances contained in it by the cell surface.

Autolysis is the self-digestion of tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of blood cells and their type.

A) participate in the formation of fibrin

B) provide the process of phagocytosis

D) transport carbon dioxide

D) play important role in immune reactions

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Red blood cells, red biconcave anucleate blood cells containing hemoglobin; carry oxygen from the respiratory organs to the tissues and participate in the transfer of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. Causes the red color of blood.

Leukocytes (colorless cells, shapeless with a nucleus) are very diverse in size and function; participate in the protective function of the blood.

Platelets and their corresponding blood platelets in mammals and humans ensure blood clotting.

Red blood cells: contain hemoglobin and transport carbon dioxide. Leukocytes: provide the process of phagocytosis, play an important role in immune reactions. Platelets: participate in the formation of fibrin.

The destruction of bacteria, viruses and foreign substances that have entered the human body by capturing them by leukocytes is a process

Phagocytosis is a process in which specially designed blood cells and body tissues (phagocytes) capture and digest solid particles.

The inflammatory process when pathogenic bacteria enters the human skin is accompanied by

1) an increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood

2) blood clotting

3) dilation of blood vessels

4) active phagocytosis

5) formation of oxyhemoglobin

6) increased blood pressure

The inflammatory process when pathogenic bacteria enter the human skin is accompanied by an increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood, dilation of blood vessels (redness of the site of inflammation), active phagocytosis (leukocytes destroy bacteria by devouring).

Signs characteristic of mushrooms -

1) the presence of chitin in the cell wall

2) storage of glycogen in cells

3) absorption of food by phagocytosis

4) ability for chemosynthesis

5) heterotrophic nutrition

6) limited growth

Characteristics of fungi: chitin in the cell wall, storage of glycogen in cells, heterotrophic nutrition. They are not capable of phagocytosis, because they have a cell wall; chemosynthesis is a characteristic of bacteria; limited growth is a characteristic of animals.

mushrooms are able to absorb nutrients throughout the entire surface of the body, does this not apply to phagocytosis?

Phagocytosis is the active capture and absorption of microscopic foreign living objects (bacteria, cell fragments) and solid particles by single-celled organisms or specialized cells (phagocytes) of humans and animals.

Microbiology: dictionary of terms, Firsov N.N. - M: Bustard, 2006.

Aren't mushrooms classified as heterotrophs?

They do, therefore option 5 is the correct answer

I believe that 125 and 6 are correct, since mushrooms have limited growth.

No, mushrooms grow throughout their lives, this is similar to plants.

Glycogen storage is a characteristic feature of animal cells.

This is a sign of the similarity between Fungi and Animals.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of human blood cells and their type.

TYPE OF BLOOD CELLS

A) life expectancy - three to four months

B) move to places where bacteria accumulate

C) participate in phagocytosis and antibody production

D) nuclear-free, have the shape of a biconcave disk

D) participate in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Leukocytes: move to places where bacteria accumulate, participate in phagocytosis and antibody production. Red blood cells: life expectancy - three to four months, anucleate, have the shape of a biconcave disk, are involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

red blood cells live for days, and lymphocytes (20-40% of all leukocytes) can live for a very long time, because have immune memory. According to the explanation, it turns out that red blood cells live longer, but why?

because 20-40% of lymphocytes from the total number of leukocytes, this is not 100% of erythrocytes

Establish a correspondence between life processes and the animals in which these processes occur.

A) movement occurs with the help of pseudopods (flowing)

B) food capture by phagocytosis

B) release occurs through one contractile vacuole

D) exchange of nuclei during the sexual process

D) release occurs through two contractile vacuoles with channels

E) movement occurs with the help of cilia

1) common amoeba

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Common amoeba: movement occurs with the help of pseudopods (by flow); food capture by phagocytosis; release occurs through one contractile vacuole. Slipper ciliates: exchange of nuclei during the sexual process; release occurs through two contractile vacuoles with channels; movement occurs with the help of cilia.

Why in the same catalog 29 in task 8 (16141) ciliates are capable of phagocytosis and amoeba too, but here only amoeba. How to understand?

Ciliates are capable of phagocytosis:

Nutrition occurs as follows. On one side of the body of the shoe there is a funnel-shaped depression leading into the mouth and tubular pharynx. With the help of cilia lining the funnel, food particles (bacteria, unicellular algae, detritus) are driven into the mouth and then into the pharynx. From the pharynx, food penetrates into the cytoplasm by phagocytosis.

But ciliates do not capture food by phagocytosis, like amoeba.

Which of the following functions does the plasma membrane of a cell perform? Write down the numbers in ascending order as your answer.

1) participates in lipid synthesis

2) carries out active transport of substances

3) participates in the process of phagocytosis

4) participates in the process of pinocytosis

5) is the site of synthesis of membrane proteins

6) coordinates the process of cell division

Plasma membrane of the cell: carries out active transport of substances, participates in the process of phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Under the numbers 1 - functions of smooth EPS; 5 - ribosomes; 6 - cores.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of an organism and the organism to which this characteristic belongs.

A) a parasitic organism

B) capable of phagocytosis

C) forms spores outside the body

D) under unfavorable conditions forms a cyst

D) the hereditary apparatus is contained in the ring chromosome

E) energy is stored in mitochondria in the form of ATP

1) Anthrax bacillus

2) Common amoeba

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Anthrax bacillus: parasitic organism; forms spores outside the body; the hereditary apparatus is contained in the ring chromosome. Amoeba vulgaris: capable of phagocytosis; under unfavorable conditions forms a cyst; energy is stored in mitochondria in the form of ATP.

Isn't it the Anthrax bacillus that forms a cyst?

no, bacteria unfavorable conditions form disputes

One of the most important defense reactions of the body to recognize, isolate and neutralize carriers of foreign genetic information and maintaining homeostasis of the body is phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis is a general biological nonspecific phenomenon inherent to one degree or another in all living cells. The most pronounced phagocytic and biocidal activity has a protective value inherent in mononuclear phagocytes - monocytes, macrophages, DCs, polymorphonuclear leukocytes (granulocytes), in particular neutrophils and eosinophils. Eosinophils primarily perform extracellular phagocytosis.

The actual phenomenon of phagocytosis (phago - devouring, absorption, cyto - cell), i.e. absorption by cells has been known since the mid-19th century. In multicellular organisms, special cells were discovered that are capable of absorbing and removing bacteria and various foreign substances from the blood. A generally recognized contribution to the study of phagocytosis and its role in defense reactions was made by 1.1. Mechnikov is the author of the phagocytic theory of immunity.

At the same time, P. Ehrlich creates a humoral theory of immunity, the basis of which is the position that the main role in protecting the body is played by soluble humoral factors - antibodies. In 1908, for the development of issues of immunity jointly 1.1. Mechnikov and P. Ehrlich was awarded Nobel Prize. This confirmed the identical role of both scientists in the study of immunity. In the 10-20s of the last century, a number of discoveries about the role of antibodies in the body’s protective reactions, the development of vaccination, serotherapy, etc. gave most scientists reason to conclude that the main factors of immunity are humoral, there are antibodies, and phagocytes were assigned the role of “orderlies” of the body - to absorb and digest foreign substances. And only from the beginning of the 60s of the XX century. the important role of macrophages in the induction, formation and manifestation of immune reactions (both specific and nonspecific) has been shown.

The role of phagocytic cells in the body's defense reactions is multifaceted. The main characteristics of phagocytes are given in table. 10. On the one hand, they perform the function of the body’s orderlies: they recognize, absorb and neutralize or lyse without delight various foreign agents, as well as their own cells that have changed their receptor composition. On the other hand, macrophages and monocytes not only participate in the destruction of foreign cells, but also, after partial digestion, express their antigens on their surface for presentation to lymphocytes to induce an immune response. In addition, macrophages are involved in the regulation of many vital functions: repair processes, proliferation and differentiation of many cells, and the synthesis of a number of biologically active substances. Macrophages also play an important role in the detoxification of bacterial pools that quickly enter the blood, from there to sites of inflammation, where they perform their protective functions. Each of the bone marrow releases approximately 109 neutrophils into the blood, and in acute inflammatory processes - 10-20 times more, and immature cells may also appear. Neutrophils play a decisive and permanent role in anti-infective defense. The activity of neutrophils is closely related to granules containing a number of enzymes and biologically active substances. There are two main types of granules - azurophilic (primary) and specific (secondary). Azurophilic granules arise in promyelocytes by budding from the inside of the Golgi apparatus and contain bactericidal substances (myeloperoxidases, lysozyme, cationic proteins, defensin, neutral proteases - elastase, collagenase, cathepsin G, acid hydrolases - N-acetyl-ß-glucosaminidase, ß-glucuronidase and etc..). Specific granules appear later, at the myelocyte stage, appearing from the outer convex part of the Golgi apparatus, and contain lysozyme, collagenase, lactoferrin, vitamin B12 binding protein, small amounts of cationic proteins and defensin. Very small C-particles containing cathepsin, serine protease, and gelatinases have been isolated. Heterogeneity of phagocytic cells. Macrophages are a large, very common morphologically and functionally heterogeneous group of cells in the body that exist as free cells, appear in various organs, tissues, affected and fixed, are closely related to the cells of the organs in which they are localized.

The heterogeneity of macrophages can be vertical and horizontal. Vertical heterogeneity is due to the existence of macrophages in the body on different stages differentiation, which leads various shapes and cell size, nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio, membrane structure, amount of peroxidase and its location. Horizontal heterogeneity (morphological and partially functional) of macrophages is determined by the local environment. The shape of macrophage cells is often similar to the shape of the cells that surround them.

Depending on the location of macrophages, they are distinguished: macrophages of serous cavities, lung macrophages - alveolar, connective tissue macrophages - histiocytes, liver macrophages - Kupffer cells, macrophages nerve tissue- microglial cells, bone tissue macrophages - osteoclasts, bone marrow macrophages in erythropoietic islets - “nanny” cells, lymph node macrophages, spleen macrophages.

The functional heterogeneity of macrophages depends primarily on their location, as well as on the stage of maturation and differentiation. Thus, spleen macrophages are active in presenting antigenic material T and B lymphocytes, whereas in alveolar macrophages this function is weakly expressed, however, they have an increased ability to phagocytose and neutralize microorganisms. The distribution of individual populations of peritoneal macrophages in density gradients revealed their functional and morphological heterogeneity.

Normally, macrophages are in an inactive state and are designated as “normal” or “intact”. Resident macrophages are cells that are constantly in certain authorities, tissues of affected non-immune animals and humans and are at rest. Resident macrophages actively participate in spontaneous cellular cytotoxicity. They can be fixed or free.

Under the influence of various factors - antigenic substances of microorganisms, biologically active substances produced by lymphocytes and other cells in the event of their activation or in the process of emergence and formation inflammatory process, the morphology and functional activity of macrophages changes. Such macrophages quickly attach to the substrate and spread out. They increase the number and size of lysosomes, increase metabolic activity, the ability to phagocytose, and cause cytotoxic activity in certain target cells. Such macrophages are called activated, stimulated (primed, induced, inflammatory), immune, armed.

Activated macrophages is a broad term that often refers to all forms of phagocytes with increased functional activity. However, more often this term is used to refer to phagocytes with increased function of various systems due to the action of various antigens and biologically active substances.

It should be noted that in the first stages of macrophage activation, both antimicrobial and antitumor activities mainly appear, but during cell maturation only antimicrobial cytotoxicity is retained.

Stimulated macrophages. The term “stimulated macrophages” often refers to all forms of phagocytes with enhanced activity, but more often it is used to characterize the state of macrophages of the peritoneal cavity after inducing sterile filling to increase the number of phagocytes.

Praishovani macrophages are the cells of the first stages of interaction between macrophages and activators, when they do not yet have antitumor cytotoxicity, but increased sensitivity to immunomodulators. In the case of further stimulation of these macrophages with appropriate activators, antimicrobial and antitumor cytotoxicity appear in them, and in the absence of irritants they are transformed into resident macrophages.

Immune macrophages are cells obtained from immune donors. They have increased functional activity, but they lack the specificity of phagocytosis.

Armed macrophages are cells to which Fc receptors are attached cytophilic antibodies of the classes IgGl, IgG3 and, to a lesser extent, IgM, as a result of which they are able to specifically recognize the corresponding target cells, including tumor cells, and lysate them by phagocytosis or apoptosis. In addition, cytophilic antibodies can attach to the surface of tumor cells and thus facilitate interaction with phagocytes.

Inflammatory macrophages. This term is used in two cases: to characterize macrophages of the inflammatory process and macrophages of sterile inflammation. In the first case, macrophages are activated both by bacteria and their metabolic products, and by cytokines, which are synthesized by various cells if they are activated during the development of the inflammatory process. In the second case, macrophages are activated by a sterile stimulus; they are weakly activated and belong to the category of stimulated macrophages.

Induced macrophages accumulate in certain places due to the action of certain extreme factors.

One of the important markers for identifying mononuclear phagocytes is the enzyme of nonspecific esterases; it is located diffusely in the cytoplasm in macrophages. The second important marker is lysozyme.

Phagocyte receptors. Phagocytes have a lot of receptors on their surface that determine their activity. These are receptors for chemotaxins (C5a, formylmethionyl peptidine, lectins, proteases), for substances that ensure the act of absorption (Fc fragment of IgG, IgM, C3 fibronectin, peptidoglucan, tsukridiv, LPC) for substances that activate the functional activity of phagocytes (IFNiv a, ß , in cytokines), to substances that provide cooperative interactions with other cells to maintain homeostasis. A separate group consists of receptors that control the connection of mononuclear phagocytes with the nervous and endocrine systems. These are receptors for corticosteroids, histamine, insulin, estrogens (steroid hormones), neuropeptides (enkephalins, endorphins, etc.). Some authors identify receptors for the inflammatory process - up to a-microglobulin, C-reactive protein, proteases, etc.

2. Monocytes, migrating into tissues, transform there into macrophages and phagocytose everything that is in the site of inflammation: microbes, destroyed leukocytes, damaged cells and tissues of the body, etc. In addition, they enhance the synthesis of enzymes that promote the formation of fibrous tissue at the site of inflammation, and thereby promote wound healing.

Phagocyte picks up individual signals (chemotaxis) and migrates in their direction (chemokinesis). The mobility of leukocytes manifests itself in the presence of special substances (chemoattractants). Chemoattractants interact with specific neutrophil receptors. As a result of the interaction of myosin actin, pseudopodia are extended and the phagocyte moves. Moving in this way, the leukocyte penetrates the capillary wall, exits into the tissue and comes into contact with the phagocytosed object. As soon as the ligand interacts with the receptor, the conformation of the latter (this receptor) occurs and the signal is transmitted to the enzyme associated with the receptor into a single complex. Due to this, the phagocytosed object is absorbed and merges with the lysosome. In this case, the phagocytosed object either dies ( completed phagocytosis ), or continues to live and develop in the phagocyte ( incomplete phagocytosis ).

The last stage of phagocytosis is the destruction of the ligand. At the moment of contact with the phagocytosed object, membrane enzymes (oxidases) are activated, oxidative processes inside the phagolysosomes sharply increase, resulting in the death of bacteria.

Basophil function. Activated basophils leave the bloodstream and participate in allergic reactions in tissues. Basophils have highly sensitive surface receptors for IgE fragments, which are synthesized by plasma cells when antigens enter the body. After interaction with immunoglobulin, basophils degranulate. The release of histamine and other vasoactive factors during degranulation and the oxidation of arachidonic acid cause the development of an immediate allergic reaction (such reactions are characteristic of allergic rhinitis, some forms of bronchial asthma, anaphylactic shock).

Macrophage- differentiated form of monocytes - large (about 20 microns), mobile cell of the mononuclear phagocyte system. Macrophages - professional phagocytes, they are found in all tissues and organs, they are a mobile population of cells. The lifespan of macrophages is months. Macrophages are divided into resident and mobile. Resident macrophages are present in tissues normally, in the absence of inflammation. Macrophages capture denatured proteins and aged red blood cells from the blood (fixed macrophages of the liver, spleen, bone marrow). Macrophages phagocytose cell debris and tissue matrix. Nonspecific phagocytosis characteristic of alveolar macrophages that capture dust particles of various natures, soot, etc. Specific phagocytosis occurs when macrophages interact with an opsonized bacterium.

Macrophage, in addition to phagocytosis, performs an extremely important function: it is antigen presenting cell. Antigen-presenting cells, in addition to macrophages, include dendritic cells of the lymph nodes and spleen, Langerhans cells of the epidermis, M cells in the lymphatic follicles of the digestive tract, and dendritic epithelial cells of the thymus gland. These cells capture, process (process) and present Ag on their surface to helper T lymphocytes, which leads to stimulation of lymphocytes and the launch of immune reactions. IL1 from macrophages activates T lymphocytes and, to a lesser extent, B lymphocytes.

He conducted his research in Italy, on the shores of the Strait of Messina. The scientist was interested in whether individual multicellular organisms retained the ability to capture and digest food, as single-celled organisms, such as amoebas, do. After all, as a rule, in multicellular organisms, food is digested in the digestive canal and ready-made nutrient solutions are absorbed. observed starfish larvae. They are transparent and their contents are clearly visible. These larvae do not have a circulating larvae, but have wandering ones throughout the larva. They captured particles of red carmine dye introduced into the larva. But if these absorb paint, then maybe they capture any foreign particles? Indeed, the rose thorns inserted into the larva turned out to be surrounded and painted with carmine.

They were able to capture and digest any foreign particles, including pathogenic microbes. called wandering phagocytes (from the Greek words phages - devourer and kytos - container, here -). And the process of capturing and digesting different particles by them is phagocytosis. Later he observed phagocytosis in crustaceans, frogs, turtles, lizards, as well as in mammals - guinea pigs, rabbits, rats and humans.

Phagocytes are special. They need digestion of captured particles not for nutrition, like amoebas and other single-celled organisms, but to protect the body. In starfish larvae, phagocytes wander throughout the body, and in higher animals and humans they circulate in the vessels. These are one of the types of white blood cells, or leukocytes, called neutrophils. It is they, attracted by the toxic substances of microbes, that move to the site of infection (see). Having emerged from the vessels, such leukocytes have outgrowths - pseudopods, or pseudopodia, with the help of which they move in the same way as amoeba and wandering starfish larvae. Such leukocytes capable of phagocytosis were called microphages.

However, not only constantly moving leukocytes, but also some sedentary ones can become phagocytes (now they are all united into a single system of phagocytic mononuclear cells). Some of them rush to dangerous areas, for example, to the site of inflammation, while others remain in their usual places. Both are united by the ability to phagocytose. These tissue (histocytes, monocytes, reticular and endothelial) are almost twice as large as microphages - their diameter is 12-20 microns. That's why I called them macrophages. There are especially many of them in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow and in the walls of blood vessels.

Microphages and wandering macrophages themselves actively attack “enemies,” and stationary macrophages wait for the “enemy” to swim past them in the current or lymph. Phagocytes “hunt” for microbes in the body. It happens that in an unequal struggle with them they find themselves defeated. Pus is an accumulation of dead phagocytes. Other phagocytes will approach it and begin to eliminate it, as they do with all sorts of foreign particles.

Phagocytes clear constantly dying cells and participate in various changes in the body. For example, when a tadpole transforms into a frog, when, along with other changes, the tail gradually disappears, entire hordes of phagocytes destroy the tadpole’s tail.

How do particles get inside the phagocyte? It turns out that with the help of pseudopodia, which grab them, like an excavator bucket. Gradually, the pseudopodia lengthen and then close over the foreign body. Sometimes it seems to be pressed into the phagocyte.

He assumed that phagocytes should contain special substances that digest microbes and other particles captured by them. Indeed, such particles were discovered 70 years after the discovery of phagocytosis. They contain substances capable of breaking down large organic molecules.

It has now been found that, in addition to phagocytosis, they primarily participate in the neutralization of foreign substances (see). But for the process of their production to begin, the participation of macrophages is necessary. They capture foreign

Cells capable of phagocytosis include:

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)

Monocytes

Fixed macrophages (alveolar, peritoneal, Kupffer, dendritic cells, Langerhans

2. What type of immunity provides protection for mucous membranes communicating with the external environment. and skin from penetration of the pathogen into the body: specific local immunity

3. K central authorities immune system relate:

Bone marrow

Bursa of Fabricius and its analogue in humans (Peyre's patches)

4. What cells produce antibodies:

A. T-lymphocyte

B. B-lymphocyte

B. Plasma cells

5. Haptens are:

Simple organic compounds with low molecular weight (peptides, disaccharides, NK, lipids, etc.)

Unable to induce antibody formation

Capable of specifically interacting with those antibodies in the induction of which they participated (after attaching to a protein and transforming into full-fledged antigens)

6. Penetration of the pathogen through the mucous membrane is prevented by class immunoglobulins:

A.IgA

B. SIgA

7. The function of adhesins in bacteria is performed by:cell wall structures (fimbriae, proteins outer membrane, LPS)

U Gr(-): associated with pili, capsule, capsule-like membrane, outer membrane proteins

U Gr(+): teichoic and lipoteichoic acids of the cell wall

8. Delayed-type hypersensitivity is caused by:

Sensitized T-lymphocyte cells (lymphocytes that have undergone immunological “training” in the thymus)

9. Cells that carry out a specific immune response include:

T lymphocytes

B lymphocytes

Plasma cells

10. Components required for the agglutination reaction:

microbial cells, latex particles (agglutinogens)

saline

antibodies (agglutinins)

11. The components for staging the precipitation reaction are:

A. Cell suspension

B. Antigen solution (hapten in physiological solution)

B. Heated microbial cell culture

G. Complement

D. Immune serum or test serum of the patient

12. What components are necessary for the complement fixation reaction:

Saline

complement

patient's blood serum

sheep red blood cells

hemolytic serum

13 Components required for the immune lysis reaction:

A .Live cell culture

B.Dead cells

IN .Complement

G .Immune serum

D. Saline solution

14. U healthy person in peripheral blood the number of T-lymphocytes is:

B.40-70%

15. Drugs used for emergency prevention and treatment:

A. Vaccines

B. Serums

B. Immunoglobulins

16. The method for quantitative assessment of human peripheral blood T-lymphocytes is the reaction:

A. Phagocytosis

B. Complement fixation

B. Spontaneous rosette formation with sheep erythrocytes (E-ROC)

G. Rosette formations with mouse erythrocytes

D. Rosette formations with erythrocytes treated with antibodies and complement (EAS-ROK )

17. When mouse erythrocytes are mixed with human peripheral blood lymphocytes, “E-rosettes” are formed with those cells that are:

A. B-lymphocytes

B. Undifferentiated lymphocytes

B. T-lymphocytes

18. To perform the latex agglutination reaction, you must use all of the following ingredients, except:

A. Patient’s blood serum diluted 1:25

B. Alcohol

31. If an infectious disease is transmitted to a person from a sick animal, it is called:

A. anthroponotic

B. zooanthroponotic

32. Basic properties and signs of a full-fledged antigen:

A. is a protein

B. is a low molecular weight polysaccharide

G. is a high molecular weight compound

D. causes the formation of antibodies in the body

E. does not cause the formation of antibodies in the body

Z. insoluble in body fluids

I. is able to react with a specific antibody

K. is not able to react with a specific antibody

33. Nonspecific resistance of a macroorganism includes all of the following factors, except:

A. phagocytes

B. gastric juice

B. antibodies

G. lysozyme

E. temperature reaction

G. mucous membranes

Z. lymph nodes

I. interferon

K. complement system
L. properdin

Z, toxoid

49. What bacteriological preparations are prepared from bacterial toxins:

Prevention toxoids

Diagnostic toxin

50. What ingredients are needed to prepare a killed vaccine:

Highly virulent and highly immunogenic strain of microorganism (whole killed bacterial cells)

Heating at t=56-58C for 1 hour

Addition of formaldehyde

Adding phenol

Adding alcohol

Exposure to ultraviolet rays

Ultrasonic treatment

! 51. Which of the following bacterial preparations are used to treat infectious diseases:

A. live vaccine

B. toxoid

B. immunoglobulin

G. antitoxic serum

D. diagnosticum

E. bacteriophage

G. allergen

H. agglutinating serum

I. killed vaccine

K. precipitating serum

52. For what immune reactions are diagnosticums used:

Expanded agglutination reaction of the Vidal type

Passive or indirect hemagglutination reactions (RNHA) )

53. Duration of the protective effect of immune sera introduced into the human body: 2-4weeks

54. Methods of introducing the vaccine into the body:

intradermally

subcutaneously

intramuscularly

intranasally

orally (enterally)

through the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract using artificial aerosols of live or killed vaccines

55. Main properties of bacterial endotoxins:

A. are proteins(cell wall of Gr(-) bacteria)

B. consist of lipopolysaccharide complexes

? V. are firmly associated with the body of the bacterium

G. are easily released from bacteria into the environment

D. thermostable

E. thermolabile

G. highly toxic

Z. moderately toxic

I. are capable of turning into toxoid under the influence of formalin and temperature

K. causes the formation of antitoxins

56. The occurrence of an infectious disease depends on:

A. forms of bacteria

B. reactivity of the microorganism

B. Gram staining ability

D. dose of infection

D. degree of pathogenicity of the bacterium

E. portal of entry infection

G. states of cardio-vascular system microorganism

Z. states environment(atmospheric pressure, humidity, solar radiation, temperature, etc.)

57. MHC (major histocompatibility complex) antigens are located on the membranes:

A. nucleated cells of different microorganism tissues (leukocytes, macrophages, histiocytes, etc.)

B. red blood cells

B. only leukocytes

58. The ability of bacteria to secrete exotoxins is due to:

A. form of bacteria
B. availability tox -gene

B. ability to form capsules

? 59. The main properties of pathogenic bacteria are:

A. the ability to cause an infectious process

B. ability to form spores

B. specificity of action on the macroorganism

G. thermal stability

D. virulence

E. ability to form toxins

G. invasiveness

H. ability to form sugars

I. ability to form capsules

K. organotropy

60. Methods for assessing a person’s immune status are:

A. agglutination reaction

B. phagocytosis reaction

B. ring precipitation reaction

G. radial immunodiffusion according to Mancini

D. immunofluorescence test with monoclonal antibodies to identify T-helpers and T-suppressors

E. complement fixation reaction

G. method of spontaneous rosette formation with sheep erythrocytes (E-ROK)

61. Immunological tolerance is:

A. ability to produce antibodies

B. the ability to cause proliferation of a specific cell clone

B. lack of immunological response to antigen

62. Inactivated blood serum:

Serum subjected to heat treatment at 56C for 30 minutes, which led to the destruction of complement

63. Cells that suppress the immune response and participate in the phenomenon of immunotolerance are:

A. T helper cells

B. red blood cells

B. T-suppressor lymphocytes

D. lymphocytes T-effectors

D. lymphocytes T killers

64. The functions of T-helper cells are:

Necessary for the transformation of B lymphocytes into antibody-forming cells and memory cells

Recognize cells having MHC class 2 antigens (macrophages, B lymphocytes)

Regulates the immune response

65. Mechanism of precipitation reaction:

A. formation of an immune complex on cells

B. toxin inactivation

B. formation of a visible complex when an antigen solution is added to serum

D. Glow of the antigen-antibody complex in ultraviolet rays

66. The division of lymphocytes into T and B populations is due to:

A. the presence of certain receptors on the surface of cells

B. site of proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes (bone marrow, thymus)

B. the ability to produce immunoglobulins

D. presence of the HGA complex

D. the ability to phagocytose antigen

67. Aggression enzymes include:

Protease (destroys antibodies)

Coagulase (clotts blood plasma)

Hemolysin (destroys the membranes of red blood cells)

Fibrinolysin (dissolution of fibrin clot)

Lecithinase (acts on lecithin )

68. Class immunoglobulins pass through the placenta:

A .Ig G

69.Protection against diphtheria, botulism, and tetanus is determined by immunity:

A. local

B. antimicrobial

B. antitoxic

G. congenital

70. The reaction of indirect hemagglutination involves:

A. erythrocyte antigens participate in the reaction

B. the reaction involves antigens sorbed on erythrocytes

B. the reaction involves receptors for adhesins of the pathogen

71. For sepsis:

A. blood is a mechanical carrier of the pathogen

B. the pathogen multiplies in the blood

B. the pathogen enters the blood from purulent foci

72. Intradermal test to detect antitoxic immunity:

The Schick test with diphtheria toxin is positive if there are no antibodies in the body that can neutralize the toxin

73. Mancini’s immunodiffusion reaction refers to a type reaction:

A. agglutination reaction

B. lysis reaction

B. precipitation reaction

D. ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay)

E. phagocytosis reaction

G. RIF (immunofluorescence reaction )

74. Reinfection is:

A. a disease that develops after recovery from repeated infection with the same pathogen

B. a disease that developed during infection with the same pathogen before recovery

B. return of clinical manifestations

75. Visible result positive reaction according to Mancini is:

A. formation of agglutinins

B. turbidity of the medium

B. cell dissolution

D. formation of precipitation rings in the gel

76. Human resistance to the causative agent of chicken cholera determines immunity:

A. acquired

B. active

B. passive

G. post-infectious

D. species

77. Immunity is maintained only in the presence of a pathogen:

A. active

B. passive

V. congenital

G. sterile

D. infectious

78. The latex agglutination reaction cannot be used for the following purposes:

A. identification of the pathogen

B. determination of immunoglobulin classes

B. detection of antibodies

79. Rosette formation reaction with sheep erythrocytes (E-ROC) is considered

positive if one lymphocyte adsorbs:

A. one sheep red blood cell

B. complement fraction

B. more than 2 sheep red blood cells (more than 10)

G. bacterial antigen

? 80. Incomplete phagocytosis is observed in diseases:

A. syphilis

B. brucellosis

V. tuberculosis

G. dysentery

D. meningitis

E. leprosy

G. gonorrhea

Z. typhoid fever

I. cholera

TO. anthrax

? 81. Specific and nonspecific factors of humoral immunity are:

A. red blood cells

B. leukocytes

B. lymphocytes

G. platelets

D. immunoglobulins

E. complement system

J. properdin

Z. albumin

I. leukins

K. lysines

L. erythrin

lysozyme

82. When sheep erythrocytes are mixed with human peripheral blood lymphocytes, E-rosettes are formed only with those cells that are:

A. B-lymphocytes

B. undifferentiated

B. T-lymphocytes

83. The results of the latex agglutination reaction are recorded in:

A. in milliliters

B. in millimeters

V. in grams

G. in the pros

84. Precipitation reactions include:

B. flocculation reaction (according to Korotyaev)

V. phenomenon of Isaev Pfeiffer

G. precipitation reaction in gel

D. agglutination reaction

E. bacteriolysis reaction

G. hemolysis reaction

H. Ascoli ring-reception reaction

I. Mantoux reaction

K. radial immunodiffusion reaction according to Mancini

? 85. Main features and properties of hapten:

A. is a protein

B. is a polysaccharide

B. is a lipid

G. has a colloidal structure

D. is a high molecular weight compound

E. when introduced into the body, it causes the formation of antibodies

G. when introduced into the body does not cause the formation of antibodies

Z. soluble in body fluids

I. is able to react with specific antibodies

K. is not able to react with specific antibodies

86. Main features and properties of antibodies:

A. are polysaccharides

B. are albumins

V. are immunoglobulins

G. are formed in response to the introduction of a full-fledged antigen into the body

D. are formed in the body in response to the introduction of hapten

E. are capable of interacting with a full-fledged antigen

G. are capable of interacting with hapten

87. Necessary components for staging a detailed Gruber-type agglutination reaction:

A. patient’s blood serum

B. saline solution

B. pure culture of bacteria

D. known immune serum, non-adsorbed

D. red blood cell suspension

E. diagnosticum

G. complement

H. known immune serum, adsorbed

I. monoreceptor serum

88. Signs of a positive Gruber reaction:

G.20-24h

89. Necessary ingredients for performing a detailed Widal agglutination reaction:

Diagnosticum (suspension of killed bacteria)

Patient's blood serum

Saline

90. Antibodies that enhance phagocytosis:

A. agglutinins

B. procytinins

B. opsonins

D. complement-fixing antibodies

D. homolysins

E. optitoxins

G. bacteriotropins

Z. lysines

91. Components of the ring precipitation reaction:

A. saline solution

B. precipitating serum

B. suspension of red blood cells

D. pure culture of bacteria

D. diagnosticum

E. complement

J. precipitinogen

H. bacterial toxins

? 92. To detect agglutinins in the patient’s blood serum, the following are used:

A. extensive Gruber agglutination reaction

B. bacteriolysis reaction

B. extended Vidal agglutination reaction

D. precipitation reaction

D. reaction passive hemagglutination with erythrocyte diagonisticum

E. indicative agglutination reaction on glass

93. Lysis reactions are:

A. precipitation reaction

B. Isaev-Pfeiffer phenomenon

B. Mantoux reaction

G. Gruber agglutination reaction

D. hemolysis reaction

E. Widal agglutination reaction

G. bacteriolysis reaction

H. RSC reaction

94. Signs of a positive ring precipitation reaction:

A. turbidity of the liquid in a test tube

B. loss of bacterial motility

B. appearance of sediment at the bottom of the test tube

D. appearance of a cloudy ring

D. formation of varnish blood

E. the appearance of white lines of turbidity in the agar ("uson")

95. Time for final accounting of the Grubber agglutination reaction:

G.20-24h

96. To set up the bacteriolysis reaction it is necessary:

B. distilled water

B. immune serum (antibodies )

D. saline solution

D. red blood cell suspension

E. pure culture of bacteria

G. suspension of phagocytes

Z. complement

I. bacterial toxins

K. monoreceptor agglutinating serum

97. For the prevention of infectious diseases the following are used:

A. live vaccine

B. immunoglobulin

V. diagnosticum

G. killed vaccine

D. allergen

E. antitoxic serum

G. bacteriophage

Z. toxoid

I. chemical vaccine

K. agglutinating serum

98. After past illness The following type of immunity is developed:

A. species

B. acquired natural active

B. acquired artificial active

G. acquired natural passive

D. acquired artificial passive

99. After the administration of immune serum, the following type of immunity is formed:

A. species

B. acquired natural active

B. acquired natural passive

G. acquired artificial active

D. acquired artificial passive

100. Time for final recording of the results of the lysis reaction performed in a test tube:

B.15-20min

101.Number of phases of the complement fixation reaction (CRR):

B. two

G. four

D. more than ten

102. Signs of a positive hemolysis reaction:

A. precipitation of red blood cells

B. formation of varnish blood

B. agglutination of red blood cells

D. appearance of a cloudy ring

D. turbidity of the liquid in a test tube

103. For passive immunization the following are used:

A. vaccine

B. antitoxic serum

V. diagnosticum

D. immunoglobulin

E. toxin

G. allergen

104. The ingredients necessary for staging the RSC are:

A. distilled water

B. saline solution

B. complement

D. patient's blood serum

D. antigen

E. bacterial toxins

G. sheep red blood cells

Z. toxoid

I. hemolytic serum

105. For the diagnosis of infectious diseases the following are used:

A. vaccine

B. allergen

B. antitoxic serum

G. toxoid

D. bacteriophage

E. diagnosticum

G. agglutinating serum

Z. immunoglobulin

I. precipitating serum

K. toxin

106. Bacteriological preparations are prepared from microbial cells and their toxins:

A. toxoid

B. antitoxic immune serum

B. antimicrobial immune serum

G. vaccines

D. immunoglobulin

E. allergen

G. diagnosticum

Z. bacteriophage

107. Antitoxic serums are the following:

A. anticholera

B. antibotulinum

G. antimeasles

D. against gas gangrene

E. antitetanus

G. antidiphtheria

K. against tick-borne encephalitis

108. Select correct sequence the listed stages of bacterial phagocytosis:

1A. approach of the phagocyte to the bacterium

2B. adsorption of bacteria on phagocyte

3B. engulfment of bacteria by phagocyte

4G. phagosome formation

5D. fusion of phagosome with mesosome and formation of phagolysosome

6E. intracellular inactivation of a microbe

7J. enzymatic digestion of bacteria and removal of remaining elements

109. Select the correct sequence of stages of interaction (intercellular cooperation) in the humoral immune response in the case of the introduction of a thymus-independent antigen:

4A. Formation of clones of plasma cells producing antibodies

3B. Antigen recognition by B lymphocytes

2G. Presentation of disintegrated antigen on the macrophage surface

110. An antigen is a substance with the following properties:

Immunogenicity (tolerogenicity), determined by foreignness

Specificity

111. Number of immunoglobulin classes in humans: five

112. IgGin the blood serum of a healthy adult is the total content of immunoglobulins: 75-80%

113. During electrophoresis of human blood serumIgmigrate to the area:γ-globulins

Production of antibodies of different classes

115. The receptor for sheep erythrocytes is present on the membrane: T-lymphocyte

116. B-lymphocytes form rosettes with:

mouse erythrocytes treated with antibodies and complement

117. What factors should be taken into account when assessing immune status:

The frequency of infectious diseases and the nature of their course

Severity of temperature reaction

Presence of foci of chronic infection

Signs of allergization

118. “Zero” lymphocytes and their number in the human body are:

lymphocytes that have not undergone differentiation, which are precursor cells, their number is 10-20%

119. Immunity is:

Biological protection system for the internal environment multicellular organism(maintaining homeostasis) from genetically foreign substances of exogenous and endogenous nature

120. Antigens are:

Any substances contained in microorganisms and other cells or secreted by them, which carry signs of foreign information and, when introduced into the body, cause the development of specific immune reactions (all known antigens are of colloidal nature) + proteins. polysaccharides, phospholipids. nucleic acids

121. Immunogenicity is:

Ability to induce an immune response

122. Haptens are:

Simple chemical compounds of low molecular weight (disaccharides, lipids, peptides, nucleic acids)

Incomplete antigens

Not immunogenic

Have high level specificity to immune response products

123. The main class of human immunoglobulins that are cytophilic and provide an immediate hypersensitivity reaction is: IgE

124. During the primary immune response, the synthesis of antibodies begins with a class of immunoglobulins:

125. During a secondary immune response, antibody synthesis begins with a class of immunoglobulins:

126. The main cells of the human body that provide the pathochemical phase of the immediate hypersensitivity reaction, releasing histamine and other mediators, are:

Basophils and mast cells

127. Delayed hypersensitivity reactions involve:

T helper cells, T suppressor cells, macrophages and memory cells

128. The maturation and accumulation of which mammalian peripheral blood cells never occurs in the bone marrow:

T lymphocytes

129. Find correspondence between the type of hypersensitivity and the mechanism of implementation:

1.Anaphylactic reaction– production of IgE antibodies upon initial contact with the allergen, antibodies are fixed on the surface of basophils and mast cells, upon repeated exposure to the allergen, mediators are released - histamine, seratonin, etc.

2. Cytotoxic reactions– IgG, IgM, IgA antibodies are involved, fixed on various cells, the AG-AT complex activates the complement system along the classical pathway, trace. cell cytolysis.

3.Immunocomplex reactions– formation of IC (soluble antigen associated with antibody + complement), complexes are fixed on immunocompetent cells and deposited in tissues.

4. Cell-mediated reactions– the antigen interacts with pre-sensitized immunocompetent cells, these cells begin to produce mediators, causing inflammation (DTH)

130. Find correspondence between the pathway of complement activation and the mechanism of implementation:

1. Alternative path– due to polysaccharides, lipopolysaccharides of bacteria, viruses (AG without the participation of an antibody), the C3b component binds, with the help of the properdin protein this complex activates the C5 component, then the formation of MAC => lysis of microbial cells

2. Classic way– due to the Ag-At complex (complexes of IgM, IgG with antigens, binding of component C1, cleavage of components C2 and C4, formation of C3 convertase, formation of component C5

3 .Lectin pathway– due to mannan-binding lectin (MBL), activation of protease, cleavage of components C2-C4, classic version. Paths

131. Antigen processing is:

The phenomenon of recognition of a foreign antigen by the capture, cleavage and binding of antigen peptides with molecules of the major histocompatibility complex class 2 and their presentation on the cell surface

? 132. Find correspondence between the properties of the antigen and the development of the immune response:

Specificity -

Immunogenicity -

133. Find correspondence between the type of lymphocytes, their quantity, properties and the way of their differentiation:

1. T-helpers, C D 4-lymphocytes – APC is activated, together with the MHC class 2 molecule, division of the population into Th1 and Th2 (differing in interleukins), form memory cells, and Th1 can turn into cytotoxic cells, differentiation in the thymus, 45-55%

2.C D 8 - lymphocytes - cytotoxic effect, activated by class 1 MHC molecule, can play the role of suppressor cells, form memory cells, destroy target cells (“lethal blow”), 22-24%

3.B lymphocyte - differentiation in the bone marrow, the receptor receives only one receptor, can, after interaction with the antigen, go into the T-dependent pathway (due to IL-2 T-helper, the formation of memory cells and other classes of immunoglobulins) or T-independent (only IgM are formed) .10-15%

134. The main role of cytokines:

Regulator of intercellular interactions (mediator)

135. Cells involved in presenting antigen to T lymphocytes are:

Dendritic cells

Macrophages

Langerhans cells

B lymphocytes

136. To produce antibodies, B lymphocytes receive help from:

T helper cells

137. T lymphocytes recognize antigens that are presented in association with molecules:

Major histocompatibility complex on the surface of antigen presenting cells)

138. Antibodies classIgEare being developed: in allergic reactions, plasma cells in the bronchial and peritoneal lymph nodes, in the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract

139. The phagocytic reaction is performed:

neutrophils

eosinophils

basophils

macrophages

monocytes

140. Neutrophil leukocytes have the following functions:

Capable of phagocytosis

Secrete a wide range of biologically active substances (IL-8 causes degranulation)

Associated with the regulation of tissue metabolism and the cascade of inflammatory reactions

141. The following occurs in the thymus: maturation and differentiation of T lymphocytes

142. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is responsible for:

A. are markers of the individuality of their body

B. are formed when the cells of the body are damaged by any agents (infectious) and mark cells that must be destroyed by T-killers

V. participate in immunoregulation, represent antigenic determinants on the membrane of macrophages and interact with T helper cells

143. Antibody formation occurs in: plasma cells

144. Antibodies classIgGcan:

Pass through the placenta

Opsonization of corpuscular antigens

Complement binding and activation via the classical pathway

Bacteriolysis and neutralization of toxigens

Agglutination and precipitation of antigens

145. Primary immunodeficiencies develop as a result of:

Defects in genes (such as mutations) that control the immune system

146. Cytokines include:

interleukins (1,2,3,4, etc.)

colony-stimulating factors

interferons

tumor necrosis factors

macrophage inhibitory factor

147. Find correspondence between various cytokines and their main properties:

1.Hematopoietins- cell growth factors (ID provides growth stimulation, differentiation and activation of T-.B-lymphocytes,N.K.-cells, etc.) and colony-stimulating factors

2.Interferons– antiviral activity

3.Tumor necrosis factors– lyses some tumors, stimulates antibody formation and mononuclear cell activity

4.Chemokines -attract leukocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes to the site of inflammation

148. Cells that synthesize cytokines are:

activated T lymphocytes

macrophages

thymic stromal cells

monocytes

mast cells

149. Allergens are:

1.full antigens of protein nature:

food products (eggs, milk, nuts, shellfish); poisons of bees, wasps; hormones; animal serum; enzyme preparations(streptokinase, etc.); latex; Components house dust(mites, mushrooms, etc.); pollen of grasses and trees; vaccine components

150. Find correspondence between the level of tests characterizing a person’s immune status and the main indicators of the immune system:

1st level- screening ( leukocyte formula, determination of phagocytosis activity by the intensity of chemotaxis, determination of immunoglobulin classes, counting the number of B-lymphocytes in the blood, determination of the total number of lymphocytes and the percentage of mature T-lymphocytes)

2nd level – quantities. determination of T-helpers/inducers and T-killers/suppressors, determination of the expression of adhesion molecules on the surface membrane of neutrophils, assessment of the proliferative activity of lymphocytes for the main mitogens, determination of proteins of the complement system, determination of acute phase proteins, subclasses of immunoglobulins, determination of the presence of autoantibodies, performing skin tests

151. Find correspondence between the form of the infectious process and its characteristics:

By origin : exogenous– the pathogenic agent comes from outside

endogenous– the cause of infection is a representative of the opportunistic microflora of the macroorganism itself

autoinfection– when pathogens are introduced from one biotope of a macroorganism to another

By duration : acute, subacute and chronic (the pathogen persists for a long time)

By distribution : focal (localized) and generalized (spread through the lymphatic tract or hematogenous): bacteremia, sepsis and septicopyemia

According to the site of infection : community-acquired, hospital-acquired, natural-focal

152. Select the correct sequence of periods in the development of an infectious disease:

1.incubation period

2.prodormal period

3.period expressed clinical symptoms(acute period)

4. period of convalescence (recovery) - possible bacterial carriage

153. Find correspondences between the type of bacterial toxin and their properties:

1.cytotoxins– block protein synthesis at the subcellular level

2. membrane toxins– increase surface permeability. membranes of erythrocytes and leukocytes

3.functional blockers- perversion of transmission nerve impulse, increased vascular permeability

4.exfoliatins and erythrogenins

154. Allergens contain:

155. Incubation period This: the time from the moment a microbe enters the body until the first signs of disease appear, which is associated with reproduction, accumulation of microbes and toxin

Phagocytosis is the main mechanism of the immune system. Phagocytosis is the main mechanism of the immune system. Lymphocytes are not capable of phagocytosis

Neutrophils and monocytes have the greatest ability for phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis

phagocytosis ability

See what “the ability to phagocytosis” is in other dictionaries:

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is the body's defender

The essence of the phenomenon

Active particles of the defense mechanism

Selective protection

Particle destruction sequence

Phagocytosis ability

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