An example of horizontal mobility is career growth. Individual social mobility

Thanks to social mobility members of society can change their status within society. This phenomenon has many features and characteristics. The nature of social mobility varies depending on the characteristics of a particular country.

Concept of social mobility

What is social mobility? This is a person changing his place in the structure of society. An individual can move from one social group to another. This type of mobility is called vertical mobility. At the same time, a person can change his position within the same social stratum. This is a different type of mobility – horizontal. Moving takes the most different shapes– growth or decline in prestige, change in income, career advancement. Such events have a serious impact on a person’s behavior, as well as his relationships with other people, attitudes and interests.

The types of mobility described above took modern forms after the emergence of industrial society. The opportunity to change your position in society - important sign progress. The opposite case is represented by conservative and class societies where castes exist. A person, as a rule, is assigned to such a group from birth to death. The best known is the Indian caste system. With reservations, similar orders existed in medieval feudal Europe, where there was a great social gap between the poor and the rich.

History of the phenomenon

Appearance vertical mobility became possible after the start of industrialization. About three hundred years ago, the industrial development of European countries accelerated significantly, which led to the growth of the proletarian class. At the same time, states around the world (with to varying degrees success) began to introduce a system of accessible education. It is precisely this that has become and still is the main channel of vertical social mobility.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the majority of the population of any country were workers without qualifications (or with the rudiments general education). At the same time, mechanization and automation of production took place. The new type of economy required more and more highly qualified personnel. It is this need that explains the increase in the number of educational institutions, and therefore opportunities for social growth.

Mobility and economics

One of the features of an industrial society is that mobility in it is determined by the structure of the economy. In other words, opportunities for climbing the social ladder depend not only on a person’s personal qualities (his professionalism, energy, etc.), but also on how different sectors of the country’s economy are interconnected.

Mobility is not possible everywhere. It is an attribute of a society that has given its citizens equal opportunities. And although there are no absolutely equal conditions in any country, many modern states continue to move towards this ideal.

Individual and group mobility

In each country, the types and types of mobility are presented differently. Society can selectively raise some individuals up the social ladder and lower others. This is a natural process. For example, talented and professional people must replace more mediocre ones and receive their high status. The lift can be individual or group. These types of mobility differ in the number of individuals changing their status.

In the individual case, a person can increase his prestige in society thanks to his talents and hard work (for example, becoming a famous musician or receiving a prestigious education). Group mobility is associated with much more complex processes that cover a significant part of society. A striking example of such a phenomenon could be changes in the prestige of the engineering profession or a decline in the popularity of the party, which will certainly affect the position of the members of this organization.

Infiltration

In order to achieve a change in his position in society, an individual needs to make certain efforts. Vertical mobility becomes possible only if a person is able to overcome all the barriers that lie between different social strata. As a rule, climbing the social ladder occurs due to the individual's ambitions and need for his own success. Any type of mobility is necessarily associated with a person’s energy and his desire to change his status.

Infiltration, which exists in every society, weeds out people who have not made enough efforts to change their social stratum. The German scientist Kurt Lewin even developed his own formula, which can be used to determine the probability of a particular person’s rise in the social hierarchy. In the theory of this psychologist and sociologist, the most important variable is the energy of the individual. Vertical mobility also depends on the social conditions in which a person lives. If he meets all the requirements of society, then he will be able to pass infiltration.

The inevitability of mobility

There are at least two reasons for the existence of the phenomenon of social mobility. Firstly, any society invariably changes in the process of its historical development. New features may appear gradually, or they may appear instantly, as happens in the case of revolutions. One way or another, in any society new statuses undermine and replace old ones. This process is accompanied by changes in the distribution of labor, benefits and responsibilities.

Secondly, even in the most inert and stagnant societies, no force can control the natural distribution of abilities and talents. This principle continues to apply even if the elite or power has monopolized and limited the availability of education. Therefore, there is always the possibility that the upper layer will at least periodically be replenished by worthy people “from below.”

Mobility by generation

Researchers identify another characteristic by which social mobility is determined. Generation can serve as this measure. What explains this pattern? The history of the development of very different societies shows that the position of people of different generations (for example, children and parents) not only can differ, but, as a rule, is different. Data from Russia supports this theory. On average, with each new generation, residents former USSR and the Russian Federation gradually rose and are rising up the social ladder. This pattern also occurs in many other modern countries.

Thus, while listing the types of mobility, we must not forget about intergenerational mobility, an example of which is described above. In order to determine progress on this scale, it is enough to compare the position of two people at a certain point in their career development at approximately the same age. The measure in this case is rank in the profession. If, for example, the father at the age of 40 was the head of a workshop, and the son at this age became the director of the plant, then this is intergenerational growth.

Factors

Sluggish and gradual mobility can have many factors. An important example in this series is the resettlement of people from agricultural areas to cities. International migration has played a serious role in the history of all mankind, especially since the 19th century, when it covered the whole world.

It was in this century that huge masses of the peasant population of Europe moved to the United States. You can also give an example of the colonial expansion of some empires of the Old World. The seizure of new territories and the subjugation of entire peoples was fertile ground for the rise of some people and the sliding down the social ladder of others.

Consequences

If horizontal mobility for the most part affects only a specific individual or group of people, then vertical mobility entails much larger consequences that are difficult to measure. There are two opposing points of view on this matter.

The first says that any examples of upward mobility destroy the class structure of society and make it more homogeneous. This theory has both supporters and opponents. On the other hand, there is a point of view according to which, high level social mobility only strengthens the system of social strata. This happens for the simple reason that people who find themselves at a higher level of position become interested in preserving class differences and contradictions.

Speed

According to sociological science, the main types of social mobility have an indicator of their own speed. With its help, experts give a quantitative assessment of this phenomenon in each specific case. Speed ​​is the distance that an individual travels in a certain period of time. It is measured in professional, political or economic strata.

For example, one university graduate managed to become the head of a department at his enterprise in four years of his career. At the same time, his classmate, who graduated from the university with him, became an engineer by the end of the same period. In this case, the speed of social mobility of the first graduate is higher than that of his friend. This indicator can be influenced by a variety of factors - personal aspiration, a person’s qualities, as well as his environment and circumstances related to working in the company. A high speed of social mobility may also be inherent in processes opposite to those described above, if we're talking about about a person who has lost his job.

Intensity

Considering 2 types of mobility (horizontal and vertical), we can determine the number of individuals changing their position in society. IN different countries this indicator gives different figures from each other. The greater the number of these people, the higher the intensity of social mobility. Like speed, this indicator demonstrates the nature of internal transformations in society.

If we are talking about the actual number of individuals, then the absolute intensity is determined. In addition, it can also be relative. This is the name of the intensity determined by the proportion of individuals who changed their position, from total number members of society. Modern science gives different estimates of the importance of this indicator. The combination of intensity and speed of social mobility determines the overall mobility index. With its help, scientists can easily compare the state of different societies.

The future of mobility

Today, in Western and economically developed societies, horizontal mobility is gaining significant proportions. This is due to the fact that in such countries (for example, Western Europe and the USA) society is becoming increasingly classless. The differences between layers are blurred. This is facilitated by a developed system of accessible education. In rich countries, anyone can study, regardless of their background. The only one important criterion becomes his interest, talent and ability to acquire new knowledge.

There is another reason why the former social mobility is no longer relevant in modern post-industrial society. Moving up becomes increasingly conditional if you take income and financial well-being as the determining factor. Today, a stable and wealthy society can introduce social benefits (as is done in the Scandinavian countries). They smooth out contradictions between people at different levels of the social ladder. This is how the boundaries between traditional classes are erased.

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level (example: moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another). There is a distinction between individual mobility - the movement of one person independently of others, and group mobility - movement occurs collectively. In addition, geographic mobility is distinguished - moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status (example: international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back). As a type of geographic mobility, the concept is distinguished migration- moving from one place to another with a change in status (example: a person moved to the city for permanent residence and changed his profession).

1. Vertical mobility

Vertical mobility is the advancement of a person up or down the career ladder.

Upward mobility - social rise, upward movement (For example: promotion).

Downward mobility - social descent, downward movement (For example: demotion).

1. Generational mobility

Intergenerational mobility is a comparative change in social status among different generations (example: a worker's son becomes president).

Intragenerational mobility (social career) - a change in status within one generation (example: a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, then a plant director). Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, and population density. In general, men and the young are more mobile than women and the elderly. Overpopulated countries more often experience the consequences of emigration (relocation from one country to another due to economic, political, personal circumstances) than immigration (moving to a region for permanent or temporary residence of citizens from another region). Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

20. Stratification of modern Russian society

Modern studies of the factors, criteria and patterns of stratification of Russian society make it possible to identify layers and groups that differ in both social status and place in the process of reforming Russian society. According to hypothesis put forward by RAS academician T.I. Zaslavskaya, Russian society consists of four social layers: upper, middle, basic and lower, as well as a desocialized “social bottom”. The upper layer includes, first of all, the actual ruling layer, which acts as the main subject of reforms. It includes elite and subelite groups that occupy the most important positions in the public administration system, in economic and security structures. They are united by the fact of being in power and the ability to directly influence the reform processes. The middle layer is the embryo of the middle layer in the Western sense of the term. True, the majority of its representatives do not have capital that ensures personal independence, or a level of professionalism that meets the requirements of a post-industrial society, or high social prestige. In addition, this layer is still too small and cannot serve as a guarantor of social stability. In the future, a full-fledged middle stratum in Russia will be formed on the basis of social groups that today form the corresponding proto-stratum. These are small entrepreneurs, managers of medium and small enterprises, the middle level of the bureaucracy, senior officers, the most qualified and capable specialists and workers. The basic social stratum covers more than 2/3 of Russian society. Its representatives have average professional and qualification potential and relatively limited labor potential. The base layer includes the bulk of the intelligentsia (specialists), semi-intelligentsia (assistants to specialists), technical personnel, workers in mass trade and service professions, and most of the peasantry. Although social status, the mentality, interests and behavior of these groups are different, their role in the transition process is quite similar - this is, first of all, adaptation to changing conditions in order to survive and, if possible, maintain the achieved status. The lower layer closes the main, socialized part of society; its structure and functions seem to be the least clear. The distinctive features of its representatives are low activity potential and inability to adapt to the harsh socio-economic conditions of the transition period. Basically, this layer consists of elderly, poorly educated, not very healthy and strong people, from those who do not have professions, and often no permanent occupation, place of residence, unemployed, refugees and forced migrants from areas of interethnic conflicts. Signs of representatives of this layer are very low personal and family income, low level of education, employment in unskilled labor or lack of permanent work. The social bottom is characterized mainly by isolation from the social institutions of large society, compensated by inclusion in specific criminal and semi-criminal institutions. This implies the isolation of social ties mainly within the stratum itself, desocialization, and loss of skills of legitimate social life. Representatives of the social bottom are criminals and semi-criminal elements - thieves, bandits, drug dealers, brothel keepers, small and large swindlers, hired killers, as well as degenerate people - alcoholics, drug addicts, prostitutes, tramps, homeless people, etc. Other researchers present a picture of social strata in modern Russia as follows: economic and political elite (no more than 0.5%); top layer (6.5%); middle layer (21%); remaining layers (72%). The upper layer includes the top of the state bureaucracy, most of the generals, large landowners, heads of industrial corporations, financial institutions, large and successful entrepreneurs. A third of the representatives of this group are under 30 years of age, the proportion of women is less than a quarter, and the proportion of non-Russians is one and a half times higher than the national average. In recent years, noticeable aging of this layer has been observed, which indicates that it is confined within its boundaries. The level of education is very high, although not much higher than that of the middle class. Two-thirds live in large cities, a third own their own enterprises and firms, a fifth are engaged in highly paid mental work, 45% are employed, most of them in the public sector. The incomes of this stratum, unlike the incomes of the rest, are growing faster than prices, i.e. here further accumulation of wealth occurs. The material situation of this layer is not just higher, it is qualitatively different from the situation of others. Thus, the upper layer has the most powerful economic and energy potential and can be considered as the new master of Russia, on whom, it would seem, one should pin hopes. However, this layer is highly criminalized, socially selfish and short-sighted - it does not show concern for strengthening and maintaining the current situation. In addition, he is in defiant confrontation with the rest of society, and partnerships with other social groups are difficult. Using their rights and new opportunities, the upper layer is not adequately aware of the responsibilities and duties that accompany these rights. For these reasons, there is no reason to pin hopes on Russia’s development along a liberal path with this layer. The middle layer is the most promising in this sense. It is developing very quickly (in 1993 it was 14%, in 1996 it was already 21%). Socially, its composition is extremely heterogeneous and includes: the lower business layer - small businesses (44%); qualified specialists - professionals (37%); middle level of employees (middle bureaucrats, military personnel, non-production workers (19%). The number of all these groups is growing, with professionals being the fastest, followed by businessmen, and office workers slower than others. The selected groups occupy positions higher or lower, so it is more correct to consider them not by middle layers, but by groups of one middle layer or, more precisely, by groups of the proto-stratum, since many of its features are just being formed (the boundaries are still blurred, political integration is weak, self-identification is low). The financial situation of the proto-stratum is improving: from 1993 to 1996, the share of the poor decreased from 23 to 7%. However, the social well-being of this group is subject to the most dramatic fluctuations, especially for employees. At the same time, it is this proto-stratum that should be considered as a potential source of the formation (apparently, in two or three decades) of a real middle layer - a class that can gradually become a guarantor of the social sustainability of society, uniting that part of Russian society that has the greatest socially active innovative potential and more than others interested in the liberalization of public relations.(Maksimov A. Middle class translated into Russian//Open Politics. 1998. May. pp. 58-63.)

21. Personality- a concept developed to reflect social nature of man, considering him as a subject of sociocultural life, defining him as a bearer of an individual principle, self-revealing in the contexts of social relations, communication and objective activity . By “personality” we understand: 1) the human individual as a subject of relationships and conscious activity (“person” - in in a broad sense words) or 2) a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society or community. Although these two concepts - face as the integrity of a person (Latin persona) and personality as his social and psychological appearance (Latin regsonalitas) - are terminologically quite distinguishable, they are sometimes used as synonyms.

22. Sociological theories of personality. Status-role concept of personality.

There are psychodynamic, analytical, humanistic, cognitive, behavioral, activity and dispositive theories of personality.

The founder of the psychodynamic theory of personality, also known as “classical psychoanalysis,” is the Austrian scientist S. Freud. Within the framework of psychodynamic theory, personality is a system of sexual and aggressive motives, on the one hand, and defense mechanisms- on the other hand, the personality structure represents an individually different ratio of individual properties, individual blocks (instances) and defense mechanisms.

The analytical theory of personality is close to the theory of classical psychoanalysis, since it has many common roots with it. The most prominent representative of this approach is the Swiss researcher K. Jung. According to analytical theory, personality is a set of innate and realized archetypes, and personality structure is defined as the individual originality of the relationship between individual properties of archetypes, individual blocks of the unconscious and conscious, as well as extroverted or introverted personality attitudes.

Proponents of the humanistic theory of personality in psychology (K. Rogers and A. Maslow) consider innate tendencies towards self-actualization to be the main source of personality development. Within the framework of humanistic theory, personality is the inner world of the human “I” as a result of self-actualization, and the structure of personality is the individual relationship between the “real Self” and the “ideal Self,” as well as the individual level of development of needs for self-actualization.

The cognitive theory of personality is close to the humanistic one, but it has a number of significant differences. The founder of this approach is the American psychologist J. Kelly. In his opinion, the only thing a person wants to know in life is what happened to him and what will happen to him in the future. According to cognitive theory, personality is a system of organized personal constructs in which it is processed (perceived and interpreted) personal experience person. The structure of personality within the framework of this approach is considered as an individually unique hierarchy of constructs.

The behavioral theory of personality also has another name - “scientific”, since the main thesis of this theory states: our personality is a product of learning. Within this approach, personality is a system of social skills and conditioned reflexes, on the one hand, and a system of internal factors: self-efficacy, subjective significance and accessibility, on the other. According to the behavioral theory of personality, personality structure is a complexly organized hierarchy of reflexes or social skills, in which the leading role is played by the internal blocks of self-efficacy, subjective significance and accessibility.

The activity theory of personality has become most widespread in Russian psychology. Among the researchers who made the greatest contribution to its development, we should name, first of all, S. L. Rubinshtein, K. A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, A. V. Brushlinsky. Within the framework of activity theory, a person is a conscious subject who occupies a certain position in society and performs a socially useful public role. Personality structure is a complexly organized hierarchy of individual properties, blocks (direction, abilities, character, self-control) and systemic existential-being properties of a personality.

Proponents of the dispositional theory of personality consider the main source of personality development to be factors of gene-environment interaction, with some directions emphasizing primarily influences from genetics, others - from the environment. Within the framework of dispositional theory, personality is a complex system of formal-dynamic properties (temperament), traits and socially determined properties. Personality structure is an organized hierarchy of individual biologically determined properties that are included in certain relationships and form certain types of temperament and traits, as well as a set of meaningful properties.

Status-role concept of personality.

The role theory of personality describes its social behavior with 2 main concepts: “social status” and “social role”.

Each person in the social system occupies several positions. Each of these positions, which implies certain rights and responsibilities, is called status. A person can have several statuses. But more often than not, only one determines his position in society. This status is called main or integral. It often happens that the main status is determined by his position (for example, director, professor). Social status is reflected both in external behavior and appearance (clothing, jargon) and in internal position (attitudes, values, orientations).

There are prescribed and acquired statuses. The prescribed status is determined by society regardless of the efforts and merits of the individual. It is determined by origin, place of birth, family, etc. The acquired (achieved) status is determined by the efforts and abilities of the person himself (for example, writer, doctor, expert, management consultant, doctor of science, etc.).

There are also natural and professional official statuses. The natural status of a person presupposes significant and relatively stable characteristics of a person (man, woman, child, youth, old man, etc.). Professional and official status is the basic status of an individual; for an adult it is most often the basis of social status. It records the social, economic, organizational, production, and managerial position (engineer, chief technologist, shop manager, human resources manager, etc.). Typically, two forms of profession status are noted: economic and prestigious. The economic component of the social status of a profession (economic status) depends on the level of material remuneration expected when choosing and implementing a professional path (choice of profession, professional self-determination). The prestigious component of social status depends on the profession (prestigious status, prestige of the profession).

Social status denotes the specific place that an individual occupies in a given social system. The totality of demands placed on an individual by society forms the content social role. A social role is a set of actions that a person occupying a given status in the social system must perform. Each status usually includes a number of roles.

One of the first attempts to systematize roles was made by T. Parsons. He believed that every role is described by 5 main characteristics:

1. emotional - some roles require emotional restraint, others - looseness

2. method of obtaining - some are prescribed, others are conquered

3. scale - some roles are formulated and strictly limited, others are blurred

4. normalization - action in strictly established rules, or arbitrarily

5. motivation - for personal profit, for the common good

The social role should be considered in 2 aspects:

role expectations

· role-playing.

There is never a complete coincidence between them. But each of them is of great importance in the behavior of an individual. Our roles are determined primarily by what others expect of us. These expectations are associated with the status that a given person has.

In the normal structure of a social role, 4 elements are usually distinguished:

1. description of the type of behavior corresponding to this role

2. prescription (requirements) associated with this behavior

3. assessment of fulfillment of the prescribed role

4. sanctions - the social consequences of a particular action within the framework of the requirements of the social system. Social sanctions can be moral in nature, implemented directly by a social group through its behavior (contempt), or legal, political, or environmental.

It should be noted that any role is not a pure model of behavior. The main link between role expectations and role behavior is the character of the individual, i.e. the behavior of a particular person does not fit into a pure scheme.

Essay
Topic: Social mobility of people and its main types.

Checked by: K.E.N., Associate Professor
Chupina I.P.
Performer: Shabtdinova A.F.
II year, I group

Ekaterinburg 2008

Content

I. Introduction.
II. Social mobility of people and its main types.

Definition of social mobility.
Types of social mobility.
The nature of social mobility and its problems.

Introduction

As a test in Sociology and Political Science during the winter session, we were told to write an essay. For some time I thought about what topic to choose. From the list of topics given, there was plenty to choose from. So I hesitated for a while. And I chose this particular topic precisely because it seemed to me the most interesting and used in everyday life. I'm sure I made the right choice. We all, in one way or another, face the problem of moving and changing status in society. This problem seemed most relevant to me in particular.
After all, what is social mobility? And why is this problem always so important and relevant? Yes, because throughout his life a person changes social groups, statuses and much more - this is all social mobility.
In addition, social mobility has variations. And even if not everyone knows by what criteria and into what groups it is divided, everyone has a so-called “common deal” with it.
In this work, I will consider in detail the concept of social mobility, types of social mobility, for clarity of information I will give examples, talk about the consequences of an individual’s movement across social strata and changes in his status, consider status instability, the nature of social mobility and many other interesting and educational facts about social mobility .
Accordingly, my main goal is to consider in detail social mobility, its structure, types and much more.
Since this topic interested me very much, I turned to several Internet sources to search for information, and was surprised how much information there was on this topic. But unfortunately, the information was often repeated and what I was looking for in one search engine, on one site, turned out to be exactly the same as on the previous and subsequent ones.
When examining sociology in detail, you will notice that sociology has three branches: social structure, social composition and social stratification, which I will also discuss in detail in the chapters of my essay.
We know that in real life inequality of people plays huge role. inequality is the criterion by which we can place some groups above or below others. So, stratification is a certain “oriented” composition of the population.
I can’t wait to tell you about my wonderful topic, tell you the whole truth, and at the end of my essay I will write what new things I learned from this topic and whether my attitude towards it has changed.

II. Social mobility of people and its main types.

1.Definition of social mobility.

2. Types of social mobility
Exist two main types social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and its two main types - vertical and horizontal. They in turn break down into subspecies And subtypes, which are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility suggests that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents.
Intragenerational mobility occurs where the same individual, unlike his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise this mobility is called social career. The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second, in the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor.
Vertical mobility implies movement from one stratum to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are upward mobility(social uplift) and downward mobility(downward movement).
Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one stratum to another, located at the same level (from the Orthodox to the Catholic religious group). Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the upright position.

The nature of social mobility.

Talented individuals are undoubtedly born in all social strata and social classes. If there are no barriers to social achievement, one can expect greater social mobility, with some individuals quickly rising to higher statuses and others falling into lower statuses. But between layers and classes there are barriers that prevent the free transition of individuals from one status group to another. One of the most important barriers arises from the fact that social classes have subcultures that prepare the children of each class to participate in the class subculture in which they are socialized. An ordinary child from a family of representatives of the creative intelligentsia is less likely to acquire habits and norms that will help him later work as a peasant or worker. The same can be said about the norms that help him in his work as a major leader. Nevertheless, ultimately he can become not only a writer, like his parents, but also a worker or a major leader. It’s just that for advancement from one layer to another or from one social class to another, “the difference in starting opportunities” matters. For example, the sons of a minister and a peasant have different opportunities for obtaining high official status. Therefore, the generally accepted official point of view, which is that to achieve any heights in society you only need to work and have the ability, turns out to be untenable.

The above examples indicate that any social movement does not occur unimpeded, but by overcoming more or less significant barriers. Even moving a person from one place of residence to another presupposes a certain period of adaptation to new conditions.

All social movements of an individual or social group are included in the process of mobility. According to P. Sorokin’s definition, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.”

P. Sorokin distinguishes two types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social object from one social position to another, lying at the same level. In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs or his social status. The most important process is vertical mobility, which is a set of interactions that facilitate the transition of an individual or social object from one social layer to another. This includes, for example, a career promotion, a significant improvement in well-being, or a transition to a higher social stratum, to a different level of power.

Society can elevate the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, and youth must displace other individuals who do not have these qualities from higher statuses. Depending on this, a distinction is made between upward and downward social mobility, or social ascent and social decline. Upward currents of professional, economic and political mobility exist in two main forms: as individual ascent, or the infiltration of individuals from their lower stratum into a higher one, and as the creation of new groups of individuals with the inclusion of groups in the upper stratum next to or instead of existing groups of that stratum. Similarly, downward mobility exists in the form of both pushing individuals from high social statuses to lower ones and lowering the social statuses of an entire group. An example of the second form of downward mobility can be the decline in the social status of a group of engineers, which once occupied very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power, according to the figurative expression of P. Sorokin, “the first case of decline resembles the fall of a man from a ship; the second is a ship that sank with all on board.”

The mechanism of infiltration in vertical mobility. In order to understand how the process of ascension occurs, it is important to study how an individual can overcome barriers and boundaries between groups and rise upward, that is, increase his social status. This desire to achieve a higher status is due to the achievement motive, which every individual has to one degree or another and is associated with his need to achieve success and avoid failure in the social aspect. The actualization of this motive ultimately gives rise to the force with which the individual strives to achieve a higher social position or to maintain his current position and not slide down. The realization of the power of achievement depends on many reasons, in particular on the situation in society. It is useful to consider the analysis of problems that arise when implementing the achievement motive, using the terms and ideas expressed by K. Levin in his field theory.

In order to achieve a higher status, an individual located in a group with lower statuses must overcome barriers between groups or strata. An individual striving to get into a higher status group has a certain energy aimed at overcoming these barriers and spent on crossing the distance between the statuses of higher and lower groups. The energy of an individual striving for a higher status is expressed in the force F with which he tries to overcome barriers to a higher stratum. Successful passage of the barrier is possible only if the force with which the individual strives to achieve a high status is greater than the repulsive force. By measuring the force with which an individual strives to penetrate the upper layer, it is possible to predict with a certain probability that he will get there. The probabilistic nature of infiltration is due to the fact that when assessing the process, one should take into account the constantly changing situation, which consists of many factors, including the personal relationships of individuals.

Characteristics of social mobility. To quantify mobility processes, indicators of the speed and intensity of social mobility are usually used. The speed of mobility is understood as “the vertical social distance or the number of strata - economic, professional or political - that an individual passes through in his upward or downward movement in a certain period of time.” For example, within three years after graduating from institute and starting work in his specialty, a certain individual manages to take the position of head of a department, and his colleague, who graduated from institute with him, manages to take the position of senior engineer. It is obvious that the speed of mobility is higher for the first individual, since during the specified period of time he has overcome more status levels. On the other hand, if an individual, as a result of prevailing circumstances or personal weakness, slides from a high social position to the bottom of society, then they say that he has a high rate of social mobility, but directed downward along the status hierarchy.

The intensity of mobility refers to the number of individuals changing social positions in a vertical or horizontal direction over a certain period of time. The number of such individuals of any social community gives the absolute intensity of mobility, and their share in the total number of this social community shows relative mobility. For example, if we take into account the number of individuals under the age of 30 who are divorced and move into other families, then we will be talking about the absolute intensity of horizontal mobility in this age category. If we consider the ratio of the number of people who moved to other families to the number of all individuals under the age of 30, then we are talking about relative social mobility in the horizontal direction.

There is often a need to consider the process of mobility from the point of view of the relationship between its speed and intensity. In this case, the aggregate mobility index for a given social community is used. In this way, it is possible, for example, to compare one society with another in order to find out in which of them or in which period mobility is higher in all respects. Such an index can be calculated separately for economic, professional or political areas of activity.

Problems of social mobility.

Classes and castes. The nature of mobility processes in many societies and social groups varies and depends on the characteristics of the structure of society or group. Some societies have established social structures, preventing various types of social mobility, others more or less freely allow both social ups and downs. In open class societies, each member can rise and fall through the statuses that make up the structure based on his own efforts and abilities. In closed class societies, each social position is assigned to the individual from birth, and no matter what efforts he makes, society excludes him from achieving social rise or social decline.

It is obvious that both of these societies represent ideal types structures do not currently exist in real life. However, there are social structures that are close to ideal open and closed class societies. One of the societies that was close to closed was the caste society in Ancient India. It was divided into a number of castes, each of which had its own social structure and occupied a strictly defined place among other castes.

Castes refer to social systems in which individuals' positions are based on descent and any possibility of achieving higher status is excluded, with strict rules prohibiting marriage between members of different castes. These rules are fixed in the mind with the help of religious beliefs. In Ancient India, social barriers between castes were very significant; transitions of individuals from one caste to another were observed extremely rarely. Each caste had specific types of professions, used separate roads for movement, and also created its own types of internal connections. The rank place of caste in society was strictly observed. Thus, representatives of the highest caste, the Brahmins, as a rule, had wealth and a high level of education. However, even if a member of this upper caste became bankrupt or for some reason remained illiterate, he still could not descend into the lower caste.

Modern societies as a whole cannot be organized according to the caste type for a number of social and economic reasons, which include, first of all, the needs of society for qualified and competent performers, for people capable of solving the problems of managing complex social, political and economic processes.

But even in modern societies there are social groups of a “closed” type, very reminiscent of castes. Thus, in many countries, such a relatively closed group is the elite - the upper layer of the social structure, which has advantages in occupying the highest social statuses and advantages in the distribution of the social product, power, receiving the best education, etc.

In societies, there are some social status groups in which vertical mobility is extremely difficult due to isolation and barriers created in the way of representatives of other social groups. At the same time, no matter how closed a group is, there is still at least a small number of members of other groups penetrating into it. Apparently, there are certain paths of vertical social mobility that are almost impossible to block, and representatives of the lower strata always have a chance to penetrate into the upper strata.

Social mobility channels.

The availability of pathways for social mobility depends both on the individual and on the structure of the society in which he lives. Individual ability matters little if society distributes rewards based on prescribed roles. On the other hand, an open society is of little help to an individual who is not prepared to struggle for advancement to higher statuses. In some societies, the ambitions of young people may find one or two possible channels of mobility open to them. At the same time, in other societies, youth can take a hundred paths to achieve higher status. Some paths to achieving higher status may be closed due to ethnic or social-caste discrimination, others due to the fact that the individual, due to individual characteristics, is simply not able to apply his talents.

However, in order to completely change their social status, individuals often face the problem of entering a new subculture of a group with a higher status, as well as the related problem of interactions with representatives of the new social environment. To overcome the cultural and communication barriers, there are several methods that individuals resort to in one way or another in the process of social mobility.

1. Lifestyle changes. It is not enough to simply earn and spend a lot of money in the case when an individual is equal in income to representatives of a higher social stratum. To assimilate a new status level, he needs to accept a new material standard corresponding to this level. Setting up an apartment, buying books, a TV, a car, etc. - everything must correspond to a new, higher status. Material everyday culture is not very noticeable, but a very significant way of joining a higher status level. But the material way of life is only one of the moments of familiarization with a new status and in itself, without changing other components of culture, means little.
etc.................

Social mobility is the process of movement of individuals between hierarchically organized elements of the social structure.

PSorokin defines social mobility as any transition of an individual or a social object, that is, everything that is created or modified by human activity, from one social position to another.

There are two main types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal mobility

Horizontal social mobility, or movement, is understood as the transition of an individual or social object from one social group to another at the same level.

The movement of an individual from a Baptist to a Methodist religious group, from one nationality to another, from one family (both male and female) to another on divorce or remarriage, from one factory to another, while maintaining his professional status - all these are examples of horizontal social mobility. The same examples are movements social facilities(radio, car, fashion, theory. Darwin) within one social layer, similar to moving from. Iowa before. California, in all these cases, "movement" can occur without any noticeable changes in the social status of the individual or social object in the vertical direction.

Vertical mobility

Vertical social mobility is understood as those relationships that arise when an individual or social object moves from one social layer to another, depending on the direction of movement; there are two types of vertical mobility: upward and downward, i.e. social ascent and social descent. According to the nature of stratification, there are downward and upward currents of economic, political and professional mobility, not to mention other less important types. Upward currents exist in two main forms: the penetration of an individual from a lower layer into an existing higher layer or the creation by such individuals new group and the penetration of the entire group into a higher layer to the level with already existing groups of this layer. Accordingly, downward currents also have two forms: the first consists in the fall of an individual from a higher social position to a lower one, without disturbing the original group to which he previously belonged; another form manifests itself in the degradation of the social group as a whole, in a decrease in its r. Angu against the background of other groups or in violation of its social unity.

In sociology, mainly scientific analysis It is vertical social mobility that is subject to this.

Principles of social mobility

PSorokin identified a number of principles of vertical mobility.

1. It is unlikely that societies have ever existed whose social strata were absolutely closed or in which there was no vertical mobility in its three main aspects - economic, political, professional.

2. There has never been a society in which vertical social mobility was absolutely free, and the transition from one social stratum in another, if mobility were carried out without any resistance, if mobility were absolutely free, then in the society that arose there would be no social strata.

3. The intensity and universality of vertical social mobility varies from society to society, i.e. in space. To see this, it is enough to compare Indian caste society and modern American one. If we take the highest levels in the political, economic and professional pyramids in both societies, it will be clear that they are all in. India is determined by the fact of birth and there are only a few individuals who have achieved high position, rising from the lowest strata. Meanwhile in. USA among famous people in industry and finance, 38.8% in the past and 19.6% in the current generation started out poor; 31.5% of multi-millionaires started their careers with average income.

4. The intensity and scope of vertical mobility - economic, political and professional - varies within the same society in different periods his stories. In the history of any country or social group, there are periods when vertical mobility increases both quantitatively and qualitatively, but there are periods when it decreases.

5. In vertical mobility in its three main forms there is no constant direction either in the direction of intensification or in the direction of weakening in intensity and comprehensiveness. This assumption is valid for the history of any species, for the history of large social organisms and, finally, for the entire history of mankind.

The work was also devoted to the analysis of social mobility. T. Lassuela “Class and Execution”, where he noted that virtually all the materials on social mobility that were published in. SELA is a material about upward mobility. Since part of the American character is the desire to rise above parents and peers, upward social mobility is more often the place for the masses.”

TERMS AND CONCEPTS

1 . Social stratification- division of society into social groups and layers in accordance with their material and political status, cultural level, qualifications, privileges, etc.

2 . Social mobility- the transition of a person from one social position to another “vertically” and “horizontally”.

3 . Vertical mobility- the transition of an individual from a lower hierarchical level to a higher one.

4 . Horizontal mobility- moving from one group to another, takes the same hierarchical position.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the social structure of society, its main elements?

2. On what basis are social communities formed??

3. What is meant by the socio-territorial structure of society?

4. How do American sociologists explain the naturalness and eternity of the existence of inequality? Davis and. Moore??

5. What is the essence of social mobility?

LITERATURE

1. Gerasimchuk AA,. Timoshenko 31. Course of lectures on philosophy-K, 2000., 2000.

2. Con. IS. Sociology of Personality-M, 1967 1967.

3. Sorokin. P. Man. Civilization. Society-M, 1992, 1992.

4. Sociology. Textbook for higher educational institutions (GVOsipov, ABKabyshcha, etc.) -. M:. Science, 1995science, 1995.

5. Sociology. The science of society. Textbook for students of higher educational institutions /. Ed. VPAndrushchenko-Kharkov, 1996c, 1996.

6. Yakuba. OO. Sociology-Kharkov, 1996-1996.

7 Thomas. E Lasswell Class and Stratum-Boston, 19651965.

The essence of social mobility

We have already noted the complexity and multi-level nature of the social system. Theory social stratification(see the previous section “Social stratification”) is intended to describe the ranking structure of society, its main features and patterns of existence and development, and the socially significant functions it performs. However, it is obvious that, having once received a status, a person does not always remain the bearer of this status throughout his life. For example, the status of a child, sooner or later, is lost, and is replaced by a whole set of statuses associated with the adult state.
Society is in constant motion and development. The social structure is changing, people are changing, fulfilling certain social roles and occupying certain status positions. Accordingly, individuals as the main elements of the social structure of society are in constant motion. To describe this movement of an individual through the social structure of society, there is a theory of social mobility. Its author is Pitirim Sorokin, who in 1927 introduced the concept into sociological science social mobility.

In the very in a general sense under social mobility is understood as a change in the status of an individual or a social group, as a result of which he (she) changes his position in the social structure, acquires new role sets, and changes his characteristics on the main scales of stratification. P. Sorokin himself determined social mobility as any transition of an individual or a social object (value), that is, everything that is created or modified by human activity, from one social position to another.

In the process of social mobility, there is a constant redistribution of individuals within the social structure in accordance with the principles of social differentiation existing in this system. That is, one or another social subsystem always has a fixed or traditional set of requirements that are presented to those wishing to become actors in this subsystem. Accordingly, ideally, in the most to a greater extent the one who best meets these requirements will succeed.

For example, studying at a university requires young people and girls to master curriculum, while the main criterion is the effectiveness of this assimilation, which is checked during the test and examination sessions. Anyone who does not meet the minimum level of knowledge requirements loses the opportunity to continue learning. Those who master the material more successfully than others increase their chances of efficient use received education (admission to graduate school, joining scientific activity, highly paid job in the specialty). Conscientious fulfillment of one's social role contributes to a change for the better in one's social situation. Thus, the social system stimulates the types of individual and collective activities it desires.

Typology of social mobility

Within the framework of modern sociology, several types and types of social mobility are distinguished, which are designed to provide an opportunity full description the whole gamut of social movements. First of all, there are two types of social mobility - horizontal mobility and vertical mobility.
Horizontal mobility - is a transition from one social position to another, but located on the same social level. For example, a change of place of residence, a change of religion (in religiously tolerant social systems).

Vertical mobility - this is a transition from one social position to another with a change in the level of social stratification. That is, with vertical mobility, social status improves or deteriorates. In this regard, two subtypes of vertical mobility are distinguished:
a) upward mobility- moving up the stratification ladder of the social system, that is, improving one’s status (for example, receiving another rank in the military, moving a student to a senior year or receiving a diploma from a university);
b) downward mobility- moving down the stratification ladder of the social system, that is, deterioration of one’s status (for example, a salary cut, entailing a change of stratum, expulsion from a university for poor academic performance, which entails a significant narrowing of opportunities for further social growth).

Vertical mobility can be individual or group.

Individual mobility occurs when an individual member of society changes his social status. He leaves his old status niche or stratum and moves into a new state. To factors individual mobility sociologists include social origin, level of education, physical and mental capacity, external data, place of residence, advantageous marriage, specific actions that can often negate the effect of all previous factors (for example, a criminal offense, a heroic deed).

Group mobility especially often observed in conditions of changes in the very system of stratification of a given society, when the social significance large social groups.

You can also highlight organized mobility when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally in the social structure is sanctioned by the state or is purposeful government policy. Moreover, this kind of action can be carried out both with the consent of the people (voluntary recruitment of construction teams) and without it (reduction of rights and freedoms, resettlement of ethnic groups).

In addition, it is of great importance structural mobility. It is caused by structural changes in the entire social system. For example, industrialization led to a significant increase in the need for cheap labor, which, in turn, led to a significant restructuring of the entire social structure, which made it possible to recruit this same labor force. Reasons that can cause structural mobility include a change in economic structure, social revolutions, change of state system or political regime, foreign occupation, invasions, interstate and civil military conflicts.

Finally, in sociology they distinguish intragenerational (intrageneration) And intergenerational (intergenerational) social mobility. Intragenerational mobility describes changes in status distribution within a certain age group, “generations”, which makes it possible to track the general dynamics of the inclusion or distribution of a given group in social system. For example, information about what part of modern Ukrainian youth is studying or has been trained at universities, and what part would like to undergo training can be very important. Such information allows monitoring of many relevant social processes. Knowing the general features of social mobility in a given generation, one can objectively assess the social development of a particular individual or small group included in this generation. Path social development which an individual goes through during his life is called social career.

Intergenerational mobility characterizes changes in social distribution in groups of different generations. Such an analysis makes it possible to monitor long-term social processes and establish patterns of social career implementation in various social groups and communities. For example, which social strata are most or least susceptible to upward or downward mobility? An objective answer to such a question makes it possible to reveal methods of social stimulation in individual social groups, features of the social environment that determine the desire (or lack thereof) for social growth.

Social mobility channels

How does it happen within the framework of the stable social structure of society? social mobility, that is, the movement of individuals through this very social structure? It is obvious that such movement within the framework of a complexly organized system cannot occur spontaneously, unorganized, or chaotically. Unorganized, spontaneous movements are possible only during periods of social instability, when the social structure is shaken, loses stability, and collapses. In a stable social structure, significant movements of individuals occur in strict accordance with developed system rules for such movements (stratification system). To change his status, an individual most often must not only have the desire to do so, but also receive approval from the social environment. Only in this case is a real change in status possible, which will mean a change in the individual’s position within the social structure of society. So, if a boy or girl decides to become students of a certain university (acquire student status), then their desire will be only the first step towards the status of a student of this university. Obviously, in addition to personal aspiration, it is also important that the applicant meets the requirements that apply to everyone who has expressed a desire to undergo training in this specialty. Only after confirmation of such compliance (for example, during entrance exams) does the applicant achieve the assignment of the desired status - the applicant becomes a student.
In modern society, the social structure of which is very complex and institutionalized, most social movements are associated with certain social institutions. That is, most statuses exist and have meaning only within the framework of specific social institutions. The status of a student or teacher cannot exist in isolation from the institution of education; statuses of a doctor or a patient - in isolation from the health care institute; Candidate or Doctor of Science statuses are outside the Institute of Science. This gives rise to the idea of ​​social institutions as unique social spaces within which most changes in status occur. Such spaces are called channels of social mobility.
In a strict sense, under channel of social mobility understands such social structures, mechanisms, methods that can be used to implement social mobility. As mentioned above, in modern society most often such channels are social institutions. The bodies of political power are of primary importance, political parties, public organizations, economic structures, professional labor organizations and unions, army, church, education system, family and clan ties. Organized crime structures are also of great importance today, which have their own system of mobility, but often have a strong influence on the “official” channels of mobility (for example, corruption).

Taken together, the channels of social mobility act as an integral system, complementing, limiting, and stabilizing each other’s activities. As a result, we can talk about a universal system of institutional and legal procedures for the movement of individuals along a stratification structure, which is a complex mechanism of social selection. In the case of any attempt by an individual to improve his social position, that is, to increase his social status, he will be, to one degree or another, “tested” for compliance with the requirements for a bearer of this status. Such a “test” can be formal (exam, testing), semi-formal (probation period, interview) and informal (the decision is made solely due to the personal inclinations of the test takers, but based on their ideas about the desired qualities of the test subject) procedures.
For example, to enter a university you must pass entrance exams. But in order to be accepted into new family, you need to go through a long process of getting to know the existing rules and traditions, confirm your loyalty to them, and gain the approval of the leading members of this family. Obviously, in each specific case there is a formal need to meet certain requirements (level of knowledge, special training, physical data), and a subjective assessment of the individual’s efforts on the part of the examiners. Depending on the situation higher value has either a first or a second component.