The conditioned reflex nature of higher nervous activity. ! A reflex is a reaction of a living organism, which ensures the most important principles of self-regulation of a living organism in order to survive! The reflex nature of the psyche

07.03.2020 -

Natural scientists and doctors studying human anatomy, even in ancient times, suggested the connection of mental phenomena with the activity of the brain and considered mental illness as a result of a violation of its activity. An essential support for these views were observations on patients with certain brain disorders as a result of bruising, injury. or disease. These patients are known to have severe mental activity- vision, hearing, memory, thinking and speech suffer, voluntary movements are disturbed, etc. However, the establishment of a connection between mental activity and the activity of the brain was only the first step towards the scientific study of the psyche. These facts do not yet explain what physiological mechanisms underlie mental activity.

We have already mentioned that the natural scientific development and justification of the reflex nature of all types of mental activity is the merit of Russian physiology, and above all of its two great representatives - I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) and I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936).

In his famous work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), Sechenov distributed reflex principle on all activity of the brain and, thus, on all mental activity of a person. He showed that "all acts of conscious and unconscious life, by their mode of origin, are reflexes." This was the first attempt at a reflex understanding of the psyche. Analyzing in detail the reflexes of the human brain, Sechenov identifies three main links in them: the initial link is external irritation and its transformation by the senses into a process of nervous excitation transmitted to the brain; middle link - the processes of excitation and inhibition in the brain and the emergence on this basis mental states(sensations, thoughts, feelings, etc.); the final link is external movements. At the same time, Sechenov emphasized that the middle link of the reflex with its mental element cannot be separated from the other two links (external irritation and response), which are its natural beginning and end. Therefore, all mental phenomena are an inseparable part of the entire reflex process. Sechenov's position on the inseparable connection of all links of the reflex is of great importance for the scientific understanding of mental activity. Mental activity cannot be considered in isolation either from external influences or from human actions. It cannot be only a subjective experience: if it were so, psychic phenomena would have no real life significance.

Consistently analyzing mental phenomena, Sechenov showed that they are all included in a holistic reflex act, in a holistic response of the body to environmental influences, regulated by the human brain. The reflex principle of mental activity allowed Sechenov to draw the most important conclusion for scientific psychology about the determinism, the causality of all actions and deeds of a person by external influences. He wrote: “The primary cause of every action always lies in external sensual excitement, because without it no thought is possible.” At the same time, Sechenov warned against a simplified understanding of the actions of external conditions. He repeatedly noted that not only external influences are important here, but also the totality of previous influences experienced by a person, all his past experience. Thus, I.M. Sechenov showed that it is unlawful to separate the brain link of the reflex from its natural beginning (impact on the sense organs) and end (reciprocal movement).

What is the role mental processes? It is the function of a signal or regulator that adjusts the action to changing conditions. The psychic is the regulator of response activity not in itself, but as a property, a function of the corresponding parts of the brain, where information about the outside world flows, is stored and processed. Mental phenomena are the responses of the brain to external ( Environment) and internal (the state of the organism as a physiological system) influences. That is, mental phenomena are constant regulators of activity arising in response to stimuli that act now (sensation and perception) and were once in past experience (memory), generalizing these effects or foreseeing the results to which they will lead (thinking, imagination). Thus, I.M. Sechenov put forward the idea of a reflex of the psyche and mental regulation of activity.

The reflex principle of activity received its development and experimental substantiation in the works of IP Pavlov and his school. I.P. Pavlov experimentally proved the correctness of Sechenov's understanding of mental activity as a reflex activity of the brain, revealed its basic physiological laws, created a new field of science - higher physiology nervous activity, the doctrine of conditioned reflexes.

Temporary connections are formed between the stimuli affecting the body and the body's responses. Their formation is the most important function of the cerebral cortex. For any kind of mental activity as brain activity, temporal neural connection is the main physiological mechanism. Any mental process cannot arise on its own, without the action of certain stimuli on the brain. The final result of any mental processes and any temporal connection is an outwardly revealed action as a response to this external influence. Mental activity is, therefore, a reflective, reflex activity of the brain, caused by the influence of objects and phenomena of reality. All these provisions reveal the mechanism of reflection of objective reality. Thus, the doctrine of higher nervous activity is the natural-scientific foundation of the materialistic understanding of mental phenomena.

Recognition of the most important significance of temporary nervous connections as the physiological mechanism of any mental activity does not mean, however, the identification of mental phenomena with physiological ones. Mental activity is characterized not only by the physiological mechanism, but also by its content, i.e. what exactly is reflected by the brain in reality. The whole set of views of I.P. Pavlov on the patterns of regulation by the brain of the interaction of animals and humans with external environment called the doctrine of two signal systems. The image of an object is for the animal a signal of some kind of unconditioned stimulus, which leads to a change in behavior by the type of a conditioned reflex. As we have already said, a conditioned reflex is caused by the fact that some conditioned stimulus (for example, a light bulb) is combined with the action of an unconditioned stimulus (food), as a result of which a temporary nervous connection arises in the brain between two centers (visual and food) and two the animal's activities (visual and food) are combined. The lighting of the light bulb became a feeding signal, causing salivation. In their behavior, animals are guided by signals that were called by I.P. Pavlov signals of the first signaling system (“first signals”). All mental activity of animals is carried out at the level of the first signaling system.

In humans, the signals of the first signaling system also play important role, regulating and directing behavior (for example, a traffic light). But, unlike animals, along with the first signaling system, humans have a second signaling system. The signals of the second signaling system are words, i.e. second signals. With the help of words, the signals of the first signaling system can be replaced. The word can cause the same actions as the signals of the first signal system, i.e. the word is "signal signals".

So, the psyche is a property of the brain. Feeling, thought, consciousness is top product specially organized matter. The mental activity of the body is carried out through a variety of special bodily devices. Some of them perceive influences, others convert them into signals, build plans for behavior and control it, and others actuate muscles. All this complex work provides active orientation in the environment.

The problem of the development of the psyche has been the cornerstone of all psychology almost since the middle of the 19th century. The leitmotif of the development of this problem was the evolutionary ideas of Charles Darwin.

IM Sechenov outlined the task of historically tracing the development of mental processes in the evolution of the entire animal world. Proceeding from the fact that in the process of cognition one should ascend from the simple to the complex or, which is the same, explain the complex more simple, but not vice versa, Sechenov believed that the simplest mental manifestations in animals, not in humans. Comparison of specific mental phenomena in humans and animals is comparative psychology, Sechenov summarizes, emphasizing the great importance of this branch of psychology; such a study would be especially important for the classification of mental phenomena, because it would probably reduce their many complex forms to less numerous and simpler types, identifying, in addition, the transitional steps from one form to another.

Later, in "Elements of Thought" (1878), Sechenov argued the need to develop an evolutionary psychology based on Darwin's teachings, emphasizing that Darwin's great doctrine of the origin of species, as is well known, put the question of evolution, or the successive development of animal forms, on such tangible foundations, that at present the great majority of naturalists hold this view, and therefore must logically recognize the evolution of psychological activities as well.

AN Severtsov in his book "Evolution and Psyche" (1922) analyzes the form of adaptation of the organism to the environment, which he calls the method of adaptation by changing the behavior of animals without changing their organization. This leads to consideration various types mental activity of animals in broad sense this word. As Severtsov has shown, the evolution of adaptations by changing behavior without changing organization proceeded in divergent directions along two main paths and reached its highest development in two types of the animal kingdom.

In the type of arthropods, hereditary changes in behavior (instincts) progressively evolved, and their highest representatives - insects - formed unusually complex and perfect instinctive actions adapted to all the details of their lifestyle. But this complex and perfect apparatus of instinctive activity is at the same time extremely inert: the animal cannot adapt itself to rapid changes.

In the chordate type, evolution took a different path: instinctive activity did not reach very great complexity, but adaptation through individual changes in behavior began to develop progressively and significantly increased the plasticity of the organism. Above hereditary adaptability, a superstructure of individual behavioral variability appeared.

In humans, the superstructure has reached its maximum size, and thanks to this, as Severtsov emphasizes, he is a creature that adapts to any conditions of existence, creating for itself an artificial environment - the environment of culture and civilization. With biological point of sight, there is no creature that has a greater ability to adapt, and therefore a greater chance of surviving in the struggle for existence, than man.

The evolutionary approach was continued in the works of V. A. Wagner, who began the specific development of a comparative, or evolutionary, psychology based on an objective study mental life animals.

To understand his principled position, the article "AI Herzen as a naturalist" (1914) is of interest. In it, Wagner develops the ideas outlined in a number of early works, reveals the essence of Herzen's criticism of both Schellingism, which neglected the facts, and empiricism, whose representatives would like to treat their subject purely empirically, passively, only observing it. These clashes of subjectivism, which actually did nothing for natural science, with empiricism and the fallacy of both directions were seen in that era, according to Wagner, only by two great writers - J. W. Goethe and the young A. I. Herzen. Wagner cites the words of Herzen - "without empiricism there is no science" - and at the same time emphasizes that Herzen recognized philosophical thought as important as empiricism.

Wagner wrote about those "patented scientists" who value only facts in science and did not realize what a profound mistake they are making when they assure that theories perish, but the facts remain. “The facts were described by Linnaeus, the same facts were described by Buffon and Lamarck, but in their description the facts turned out to be different. To understand them ... you need ... to be able to use the philosophical method of guidance. knowledge of the truth, and techniques and methods of study, there is a high scientific monism, about which Herzen wrote.

In his studies devoted to the problems of the development of the psyche and built on the richest factual material, Wagner never remained a "slave of fact", but often rose to "higher scientific monism", as he called Herzen's philosophical materialism.

In his work "The Biological Foundations of Comparative Psychology (Biopsychology)" (1910-1913), Wagner contrasts the theological and metaphysical worldview with the scientific one in matters of comparative psychology.

The theological worldview, which, according to Wagner, finally took shape in Descartes, consisted in denying the soul in animals and presenting them in the form of automata, although more advanced than any machine made by man. Noticing that this worldview most of all corresponded to the Christian doctrine of the immortality of the soul, Wagner concludes that his contemporary meaning negligible. He does not consider reasonable attempts to revive the theological worldview on the basis of anti-Darwinism, pointing out that such a view is a vestige of a once powerful theological philosophy, modified and adapted to the data of modern biological research.

The remnant of the past is also the metaphysical direction, which has replaced the theological one. Wagner called metaphysics the sister of theology in its view of the soul as an independent entity. For modern metaphysicians, Wagner wrote, attempts to reconcile metaphysics with science are typical. They no longer talk about the infallibility of their speculations and try to prove that there is no opposition between the metaphysical and scientific solutions to "problems of spirit and life". Wagner considers these considerations unsubstantiated, and the reconciliation of metaphysics, thus understood by him, with science is an impossible and unnecessary matter.

The scientific approach in the history of the problem of the development of the psyche is characterized, according to Wagner, by the clash of two opposing schools.

One of them is inherent in the idea that there is nothing in the human psyche that would not be in the psyche of animals. And since the study of psychic phenomena in general began with man, the entire animal world was endowed with consciousness, will and reason. This, according to his definition, is "monism ad hominem" (lat. - in relation to a person), or "monism from above."

Wagner shows how an assessment of the mental activity of animals by analogy with humans leads to the discovery of "conscious abilities" first in mammals, birds and other vertebrates, then in insects and invertebrates up to unicellular inclusive, then in plants and, finally, even in the world of inorganic nature. So, objecting to E. Wasman, who believed that ants are characterized by mutual assistance in construction work, cooperation and division of labor, Wagner rightly characterizes these thoughts as anthropomorphism.

Despite the erroneousness of the final conclusions that many scientists came to, drawing an analogy between the actions of animals and people, this subjective method had fundamental defenders and theorists in the person of W. Wundt, E. Wasman and J. Romanes. For Wagner, this method is unacceptable even with those adjustments to it, with those recommendations to "use it carefully" and other reservations that are characteristic of the latter. “Neither Romanes’ theory nor Wasman’s corrections,” says Wagner, “proved the scientific nature of the subjective method. I believe that the failure of their attempt is not due to the lack of their argument or the incompleteness of their considerations, but solely to the unsatisfactory nature of the method itself, in defense of which they , albeit for different reasons, act".

It is difficult to name, both in Russia and in the West, a biologist or psychologist who during this period would destroy faith in the power of the subjective method with such persuasiveness and consistency, criticize anthropomorphism in natural science, as Wagner did. To some scientists, he even seemed in this respect too harsh and prone to extremes.

The biologist Yu. Filippchenko, who seemed sympathetically expounding on Wagner's negative assessment of "monism from above," was, however, inclined, like Vasman, to confine himself to superficial criticism of "walking animal psychology." It is impossible to completely deny the method of analogy, Filippchenko believed, and "without
some element of analogy with the human psyche," no psychology of animals is possible. He unconditionally subscribed to Vasman's words: "Man does not have the ability to directly penetrate into the mental processes of animals, but can conclude about them only on the basis of external actions ... These manifestations of the mental life of animals, man then he must compare with his own manifestations, internal causes which he knows from his self-consciousness."1 Further, Filippchenko argued that the need for such comparisons was not denied by Wagner himself, and quoted the latter's words that objective biopsychology also uses the comparison of mental abilities to solve its problems, but in a completely different way than according to the material of comparison Here, as we see, the question of the possibility of an analogy between the human psyche and the psyche of animals (which relates to the problem of methods of comparative psychology) was replaced by the question of comparing the psyche of animals and humans (which is the subject of comparative psychology). necessary to compare the psyche of man and animals (without this there would be no comparative psychology), Wagner denied the need and possibility of the method of direct analogies with the human psyche in biopsychology.

Another direction, opposite to "monism from above", Wagner called "monism from below". While anthropomorphists, exploring the psyche of animals, measured it in terms of human psyche, "monists from below" (he included J. Loeb, K. Rabl and others among them), solving the problems of the human psyche, determined it, along with the psyche of the animal world, by the measure of unicellular organisms.

If the "monists from above" saw reason and consciousness everywhere, which they eventually recognized as spilled throughout the Universe, then the "monists from below" everywhere (from ciliates to humans) saw only automatisms. If for the former the psychic world is active, although this activity is characterized theologically, then for the latter the animal world is passive, and the activity and fate of living beings are completely predetermined by "physical and chemical properties their organizations". If the "monists from above" based their constructions on judgments by analogy with a person, then their opponents saw such a basis in the data of physical and chemical laboratory studies.

Such are the comparisons of the two main directions in understanding the problem of development in psychology. Here, fundamental shortcomings are captured, which for one direction come down to anthropomorphism, subjectivism, and for the other - to zoomorphism, the actual recognition of animals, including higher ones and even humans, as passive automata, to a misunderstanding of the qualitative changes characteristic of the higher stages of evolution, i.e. ultimately to metaphysical and mechanistic errors in the concept of development.

Wagner rises to the point of understanding that extremes in characterizing development inevitably converge: “Extremes converge, and therefore there is nothing surprising in the fact that the monists “from below” in their extreme conclusions come to the same error that the monists came to “from above”, only on the other hand: the latter, based on the position that a person does not have such mental abilities that animals would not have, bring the entire animal world to the same level with the top and endow this world, down to the simplest inclusive, with reason, consciousness and will. Monists "from below", proceeding from the same position that man in the world of living beings from the point of view of the psychological does not represent anything exceptional, bring this whole world to the same level with the simplest animals and come to the conclusion that human activity is to the same extent automatic, like the activity of ciliates.

In connection with the criticism to which Wagner subjected the views of the “monists from below,” it is necessary to touch briefly on the difficult question of his attitude to the physiological teachings of IP Pavlov. Wagner, giving Pavlov his due (he called him "outstanding in talent") and agreeing with him in criticizing subjectivism and anthropomorphism, nevertheless believed that the method of conditioned reflexes is suitable for elucidating lower-order rational processes, but insufficient for studying higher processes. He stood on the fact that the reflex theory, being insufficient for explaining higher processes, is equally insufficient for explaining the basic material of comparative psychology - the instincts. Physiological mechanism instinct is still unknown and cannot be reduced to an unconditioned reflex - such is his conclusion.

At the same time, Wagner did not lose his deterministic sequence, interpreting instinctive actions as a hereditarily fixed reaction to the sum external influences, and at the same time did not deny that all actions are based on reflexes. Considering that there is no direct connection between instincts and rational abilities, Wagner saw their common reflex origin. Instinctive and rational actions go back to reflexes - this is their nature, their genesis. But he did not accept the mechanical reduction of instincts to reflex. Here Wagner touched on the starting point of the disagreements characteristic of that time - the question of the possibility or impossibility of reducing complex phenomena to their components. “There is nothing improbable in such a statement (that all this is essentially a phenomenon of the same kind. - A.P.) ... but the question is not whether such a method of solving the problem contributes to the knowledge of the truth or hinders this knowledge”1. “Isn’t it clear,” he continued, “that only by going ... by distinguishing objects and analyzing them, we can approach the elucidation of the true nature of these things, that all other ways, striving under the pretext of the apparent homogeneity of phenomena, to brush aside their real difference, represent an unacceptable methodological error... To prove that instincts are only reflexes is no more fundamental than to prove that the wing of a butterfly, a dragon, a bird, and an airplane are phenomena of the same kind.They are indeed homogeneous as an adaptation to flight, but They are completely heterogeneous in essence. partial signs similarities, that these phenomena are essentially homogeneous, to believe that, having studied the mechanism of reflexes, we can cognize the instincts, i.e., establish the laws of their development and relationship to rational abilities, the laws of their change and formation - this is so defiantly at odds with the facts, that it is hardly sound to insist otherwise.

Wagner has risen here to a dialectical understanding of the relationship between reflexes and instincts (reflexes and instincts are both homogeneous and heterogeneous, homogeneous in one and heterogeneous in another). We noted above that, from Wagner's point of view, instincts (as well as "reasonable actions") have reflexes as their source. Thus, he distinguished between the question of the origin of instincts and reason (here he is on the positions of the reflex theory) and the reduction of mental abilities to reflexes (here he is against the mechanism of reflexologists). This difficult problem constantly arises in the history of psychology, leaving the dialectical solution of the question true. This is the only passage between the Scylla of subjectivism and the Charybdis of mechanism (rejection of the reflex origin of reason and instinct - union with subjectivism; reduction of the psyche to reflexes - union with mechanism).

Continuing to emphasize the reflex origin of instincts, he once again stipulated a different approach to their genesis than that which was inherent in researchers who linearly arranged reflex, instincts and rational abilities, as in G. Spencer, C. Darwin, J. Romanes: reflex-instinct - mind, or, as in D. G. Lewis and F. A. Pouchet: reflex - mind - instinct (in last case the mind is reduced).

To understand the formation and change of instincts, he uses the concept of a species template. Instincts, according to Wagner, are not stereotypes that are equally repeated by all individuals of a species, but an ability that is unstable and fluctuates within certain hereditarily fixed limits (templates) for each of its species. Understanding instinct as a species pattern that is hereditarily formed on long way phylogenetic evolution and which, however, is not a rigid stereotype, led Wagner to the conclusion about the role of individuality, plasticity and variability of instincts, about the reasons causing new formations of instincts. He points out that in addition to genesis through mutations (the path to the formation of typically new types of traits), genesis through fluctuations is possible. The latter lies in the ways of adaptation to changing conditions.

Wagner is far from the idea that an individual can, for example, build a nest in different ways, at its own discretion, as representatives of classical zoopsychology believed. The instinct of an individual is individual in the sense that it corresponds to a given fluctuation, or, to put it better, it is individual within the species template (pattern for the species, individual for the individual). The set of fluctuations in the instinct of all individuals of a species forms a hereditarily fixed template with a more or less significant amplitude of fluctuations. The theory of fluctuating instincts is the key to elucidating the genesis of new traits. The facts testify, Wagner believed, that in those cases when the deviation of a fluctuation from a type goes beyond its template, it becomes in conditions under which it can give rise to the emergence of new signs, if this sign turns out to be useful and gives some advantages in the struggle for existence ( as a result, and will be supported by natural selection).

Wagner could not but evoke a negative attitude towards the attempts of individual physiologists, to whom some of Pavlov's collaborators (G. P. Zeleny and others) belonged in this period, to combine metaphysics with physiology. He wrote that physiologists, finding themselves in a realm of abstract considerations alien to them, often climb into such a thicket of metaphysics that one can only wonder how such opposite ways of thinking can be combined in one brain.

A negative reaction was caused by Wagner's interpretation of zoopsychology as a science entirely anthropomorphistic and subjectivist, shared by many physiologists and Pavlov himself. During this period, a zoopsychologist for Pavlov is one who "wants to penetrate into a dog's soul," and all psychological thinking is "adeterministic reasoning." Indeed, in those years when Pavlov was developing the main provisions of his theory of the physiology of higher nervous activity, and Wagner was developing the biological foundations of comparative psychology, I. A. Sikorsky wrote, as if about something taken for granted, about "aesthetic feelings" fish, about the "understanding of music" in amphibians, about the "intellectual exercises" of parrots, about the "feeling of reverence in bulls." Such anthropomorphism was equally alien to both Pavlov and Wagner.

The subjective differences between Pavlov and Wagner are historically explained by the difficulty of solving many philosophical problems of science, and above all the problem of determinism. As a result, one of them (Wagner) wrongfully associated the other with a purely mechanistic physiological school, and the other (Pavlov) just as wrongly did not make any exceptions for zoopsychologists who take anti-anthropomorphist positions.

The objective commonality of the positions of Pavlov and Wagner was noticed by N. N. Lange. Criticizing the psychophysical parallelism, or "parallelistic automatism" of mechanist physiologists, N. N. Lange put forward arguments borrowed from evolutionary psychology. He pointed out that "parallelistic automatism" could not explain how and why mental life developed. If this life has no effect on the organism and its movements, then the theory of evolution is inapplicable to psychology. “This psychic life is absolutely not needed by the organism, it could act in the same way even in the complete absence of the psyche. If, however, we attach biological value to psychic life, if we see evolution in its development, then this psyche can no longer be useless for the self-preservation of the organism.”

In his "Psychology" Lange separates Pavlov's views from the mechanistic system of the "old physiology" and shows, bearing in mind Pavlov's school, that in "physiology itself we now meet the desire to expand the old physiological concepts to their broad biological significance. In particular, such a processing the concept of a reflex, this basis of a purely mechanical interpretation of animal movements, was subjected to.

Thus, Lange already then saw that the mechanistic concept of the reflex, dating back to Descartes, was being reworked in Pavlov's theory of conditioned reflexes. “The famous studies of Prof. Pavlov on the reflex secretion of saliva and gastric juice,” writes Lange, “showed what various factors, including mental ones, influence these reflexes. The former simplified concept of a reflex as a process completely independent of the psyche turns out to be essentially dogmatic and insufficient. Lange rightly brought Pavlov closer not to mechanistic physiologists, but to evolutionary biologists.

Criticizing anthropomorphism and zoomorphism in comparative psychology, Wagner
developed objective methods for studying the mental activity of animals. Based on the genetic relationship of animal forms, the naturalist-psychologist, according to Wagner, must compare the mental manifestations of a given species with those not in humans, but in the closest related forms in the evolutionary series, from which this comparison can be made further.

The main zoopsychological works of Wagner are built on the application of this objective method and are evidence of its fruitfulness.

Having set himself the goal of tracing the origin and development of mental functions, Vygotsky turns to the works of Wagner. It is from him that Vygotsky finds the proposition about recognizing "the concept of "evolution along pure and mixed lines" as "central for elucidating the nature of higher mental functions, their development and decay." The appearance of a new function “along clean lines,” that is, the emergence of a new instinct that leaves the entire previously established system of functions unchanged, is the basic law of the evolution of the animal world. The development of functions along mixed lines is characterized not so much by the appearance of a new one as by a change in the structure of the entire pre-existing psychological system. In the animal kingdom, development along mixed lines is extremely insignificant. For human consciousness and its development, as studies of a person and his higher mental functions show, Vygotsky emphasizes, the foreground is not so much the development of each mental function ("development along a clean line"), but a change in interfunctional connections, a change in the dominant interdependence of mental activity child at every age level. "The development of consciousness as a whole consists in a change in the relationship between individual parts and activities, in a change in the relationship between the whole and the parts."

Ticket P1 1 The concept of psychology as a science. Principles and structure of modern psychology.

Subjects and tasks of modern psychology, sections. Basic problems of science.

Since ancient times, the needs of social life have forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental make-up of people. PSYCHOLOGY(from Greek. psyche- soul + logos- teaching, science) - the science of the laws of development and functioning psyche as a special form of life. AT philosophical teachings antiquity (Aristotle, Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus, Plato), some psychological aspects, which were solved either in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. For centuries, the phenomena studied by Psychology have been designated by the general term "soul" and were considered the subject of one of the sections of philosophy, named in the XVI century. P. Information about these phenomena was also accumulated in many other areas of research, as well as in various fields practice (especially medical and pedagogical). So P. on different stages interpreted in different ways:

I stage-psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain everything strange phenomena In human life.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. It arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts.

Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Arises in the 20th century: The task of psychology is to experiment and observe what can be directly seen, namely: behavior, actions, reactions of a person (motives that cause actions were not taken into account).

Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) is considered the founder of Russian scientific psychology. In his book "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), the basic psychological processes receive a physiological interpretation.

Modern psychology is a widely developed field of knowledge, including a number of individual disciplines and scientific areas. So, the features of the psyche of animals are studying zoopsychology.

The human psyche is studied by other branches of psychology: Age-related psychology studies issues mental development in ontogeny, patterns of transition from one period of mental development to others based on the change of types leading activities she is closely associated with child psychology which studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activities, the whole personality of a growing person, the conditions for accelerating development. Social Psychology studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality, his relationship with people, with a group, the psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups(the effect of radio, press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people). Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of personality development in the process of training, education. There are a number of branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types. human activity: labor psychology examines the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, patterns of development of labor skills. Engineering psychology studies the regularities of the processes of interaction between a person and modern technology in order to use them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated systems management, new types of technology. Aviation, space psychology analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activity of a pilot, astronaut. Medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor's activity and the behavior of the patient, develops psychological methods treatment and psychotherapy . pathopsychology studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the disintegration of the psyche during various forms brain pathology. legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in the criminal process (psychology of testimonies, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the criminal's personality. Military psychology studies human behavior in combat conditions.

Thus, modern psychology is characterized by a process of differentiation, which gives rise to a significant branching into separate branches, which often diverge very far and differ significantly from each other, although they retain common subject research- facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche. The differentiation of psychology is complemented by a counter process of integration, as a result of which there is a docking of psychology with all sciences (through engineering psychology - with the technical sciences, through educational psychology- with pedagogy, through social psychology - with the social and social sciences, etc.). Modern psychology is among the sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third. This is explained by the fact that the focus of her attention is always a person, who is also studied by the sciences mentioned above, but in other aspects. It is known that philosophy and its integral part - the theory of knowledge (epistemology) solves the question of the attitude of the psyche to the surrounding world and interprets the psyche as a reflection of the world, emphasizing that matter is primary, and consciousness is secondary. Psychology, on the other hand, clarifies the role that the psyche plays in human activity and its development (Fig. 1). According to the classification of sciences of academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.

Ticket P1 2 Psychology integrates all the data of these sciences and, in turn, influences them, becoming a general model of human knowledge. Psychology should be seen as Scientific research behavior and mental activity of a person, as well as the practical application of acquired knowledge.

Tasks and place of psychology in the system of sciences The tasks of psychology basically boil down to the following: to learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns; learn to manage them; use the acquired knowledge in order to increase the efficiency of those branches of practice at the intersection with which the already established sciences and branches lie; be theoretical basis psychological service practices.

Studying the patterns of psychology. phenomena, psychologists reveal the essence of the process of reflection of the objective world in the human brain, find out how the actions of people are regulated, how the psycho develops. activity and mental properties of the personality are formed. Establishing patterns is cognizant. processes (sensations, perceptions, thinking, imagination, memory), the psyche contributes to scientific. building a learning process, creating the possibility of rights. determining the content of studies. material necessary for the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities. By revealing the patterns of personality formation, psychology assists pedagogy in the correct construction of the educational process.

The range of tasks that psychologists are occupied with solving determines, on the one hand, the need. relationships psychologist. with other sciences involved in solving complex problems, and on the other - the allocation within the psychologist herself. the sciences of special branches engaged in solving psychological problems in one or another sphere of society.

tasks developmental psychology are: 1. Scientific rationale age norms of various psychophysical functions; 2. Determination of the standards of maturity of the individual, personality.;3. Identification of the actual potential of a person in different periods his life. tasks of mental support pedagogical process :

1. To ensure the advancement of pedagogical practice in psychological research, the search for a new one.

2. Considering the fact that scientific information quickly becomes obsolete, it is necessary that the student, as a result of training, could independently master the new information that has appeared.

3. Determination of the general laws of developmental psychology in ontogeny.

4. Give psychological characteristics personality and give it at every age stage.

5. Find out the psychological mechanisms of assimilation of social experience.

6. To study the psychological basis of an individual approach.

7. Learn the basics and causes of deviations in mental development children. “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then she must first recognize him in all respects too” (K. D. Ushinsky).

In ped. psycho-ii there are a number of problems, theoret. and pract. the value of which justifies the allocation and existence of this field of knowledge. One of the most important in the development of children is a) the problem of sensitive periods in a child's life.

1. all sensitive periods of the development of the intellect and personality of the child, their beginning, activity and end are not known;

2. in the life of each child, they are individually peculiar, they come at different times and proceed in different ways. Difficulties arise with the definition of psycho. qualities of children who can form. and development during this sensitive period.

b)connection that exists between the consciously organized ped. impact on the child and his psychologist.development. Does education and upbringing lead to the development of the child or not? Is all learning developmental (developing)? How are the biological maturation of the body, learning and development of the child related?

in)combination of education and upbringing. It is known that every age opens up its possibilities for intellect. and personal growth. Are they the same for all children, how best to use these opportunities?

G)the problem of the systemic nature of the development of the child and the complexity of pedagogical influences. present developed. reb. like progress. the transformation of many of his cognitive and personality properties, each of which can be developed separately, but the development of each affects the formation of many other properties and, in turn, depends on them.

d)links between maturation and learning, inclinations and way., genotypic and environmental conditionality developed. psychologist. char-ik and behavior.reb, as a genotype and environment, separate. and joint affect the psychologist. and behavioral development. child.

f) the psychological readiness of children for conscious upbringing and education. Solving it, you need to determine what it means psychological readiness to training and education, in what sense of the word should this readiness be understood:

1) in the sense of the child's inclinations or the development of abilities for education and training; 2) in terms of personal level of development; 3) in the sense of achieving a certain level of intellectual and personal maturity.

well)the problem of pedagogical neglect of the child(it means its inability to assimilate ped. influences and accelerated development, caused by removable causes, (on early stages their development reb. poorly trained. and educate).

h) ensuring individualization of training. It is understood as the need for scientifically substantiated division of children into groups in accordance with their abilities and inclinations, as well as for applying to each child the methods of education and upbringing that are best suited to his individual characteristics.

e) problem social adaptation and rehabilitation. about the adaptation of children who were socially isolated. and unprepared for a normal life among people, for training. and interact with them on a personal and business level. Social rehabilitation- this is the restoration of broken social ties and the psyche of such children so that they can successfully learn and develop like all normal children in communication and interaction with people around them.

The solution of the listed psychological and pedagogical problems requires a high professional qualification from the teacher.

Ticket P2 1 The psyche of living beings. The human psyche and brain. The reflex nature of the psyche.

Reflex - Reflexus - Reflex! A reflex is a reaction of a living organism, which ensures the most important principles of self-regulation of a living organism in order to survive!

Reflex -Reflexus-Reflex!

Reflex. The term and concept of reflex.

Reflex, in Latin "reflexus", means reflection, reflected.

A reflex is a reaction of a living organism that ensures the emergence, change or termination of the functional activity of organs, tissues or the whole organism, carried out with the participation of the central nervous system in response to irritation of the body's nerve receptors.

A reflex is a clear stable response (reaction of a living organism) to some external stimulus.

Reflexes exist in multicellular living organisms that have a nervous system, and are carried out through a reflex arc. Reflexes and reflex interactions are the basis in the complex-composite activity of the nervous system.

The reflex is the basic elementary unit of nervous action. Under natural conditions, reflexes are not carried out in isolation, but are combined (integrated) into complex reflex acts that have a certain biological orientation. The biological significance of reflex mechanisms lies in the regulation of the work of organs and the coordination of their functional interaction in order to ensure constancy internal environment organism (homeostasis), maintaining its integrity and the ability to adapt to constantly changing environmental conditions.

The reflex, as a phenomenon and property, is manifested in the fact that in response to habitual circumstances, the animal responds with a habitual reaction, congenital or acquired.

Reflex -Reflexus-Reflex!

Reflex. History and prehistory of the study of reflexes.

See what "REFLEX" is in other dictionaries:

Cm … Synonym dictionary

Involuntary. A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. Popov M., 1907. reflex performed by a reflex, associated with reflexes; involuntary, unconscious. New dictionary of foreign words. by EdwART,… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

reflex- oh, oh. reflecteur m. obsolete Rel. to reflection, analysis, reflection. We must take up .. the study of the reflex apparatus of the novelist J. Zand. Delo1874 9 1 251. Today we have a moment more truthful than reflex. 1876. Ven. Dn… … Historical dictionary gallicisms of the Russian language

1. REFLEX, reflex, reflex (physical, astral). adj. to the reflector. 2. REFLEX, reflex, reflex (physiol.). adj. to reflex in 1 value; unconsciously reacting to external stimuli. reflex movements. Reflex ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

I reflex adj. 1. ratio with noun. reflector associated with it 2. Inherent to the reflector, characteristic of it. II reflex adj. 1. ratio with noun. reflex I associated with it 2. Carried out as a result of the reflex [reflex ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova

REFLEX, a, m. An involuntary reaction of the body to external or internal stimuli. Reflexes of the brain. Conditional r. (acquired as a result of repeated exposure to irritants). Unconditional r. (congenital). Dictionary… … Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

REFLECTOR, a, m. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

reflex- — [] Topics information security EN reflecting … Technical Translator's Handbook

1) reflex oh, oh. adj. to the reflector. Reflective mirror. Reflector lamp. 2) reflex oh, oh. 1. physiol. adj. to reflex (in 1 value); caused by a reflex. reflex reaction. reflex activity of the body. 2.… … Small Academic Dictionary

Books

The method of K. S. Stanislavsky and the physiology of emotions, P.V. Simonov. The emotional reaction of a person is a complex reflex act, all components of which, motor and vegetative, are closely interconnected. At the same time, the principles and degree of influence of the bark ...

The conditioned reflex nature of higher nervous activity. ! A reflex is a reaction of a living organism, which ensures the most important principles of self-regulation of a living organism in order to survive! The reflex nature of the psyche

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